Africa – Page 3 – Rural Water Supply Network

Mentoring as a pathway toward increasing African women in STEM

This blog is written by Njeri Ngugi, a female Graduate Engineer who finalising her Master’s degree in Environmental and Biosystems Engineering.

Feature image: Njeri Performing routine maintenance on feed chopper, Kenya, 2023. Credit: Njeri Ngugi

“Achieve Gender Equality and empower women and girls” is the stated goal of United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5). The UN and Constitution of Kenya, 2010 acknowledges gender equality as a fundamental right and cornerstone of a sustainable, peaceful, and prosperous global community. Gender equality pertains to equal access to health care, legislative representation, economic processes, education and decent work.

I define mentoring as when someone (a mentor), shares their knowledge, skills, and experience with another person (a mentee), to help them to progress. It is a relationship between two people with the goal of professional and personal development.

I believe we all should wear both caps. Seek guidance from those with more knowledge and/or experience whilst guiding others.

The underrepresentation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), particularly in Africa and even in my country Kenya, is a challenge that demands innovative solutions. We continue to face barriers in pursuing STEM careers, ranging from cultural stereotypes to limited access to educational resources amongst others. Mentors serve as living examples that debunk myths and demonstrate that success knows no gender.

Statistics Confirm Power of Mentorship for African Women Engineers

According to a 2021 UNESCO report on Unlocking the Potential of Girls in STEM in Kenya, women make up 35% of students in STEM in higher education worldwide.

I am a Kenyan graduate engineer under the Engineers Board of Kenya (EBK) – the Kenyan statutory body that registers and accredits engineering programs offered by universities. As of January 2024, out of the 21,769 registered graduate engineers in Kenya, only 3,010 are women, representing a paltry 13.8 percent.

“If you cannot see where you are going, ask someone who has been there before.”
J Loren Norris

Over the years, I have sought mentors at various stages of my life and career. I have not only gained knowledge and skills but also obtained invaluable tips about challenges faced and those expected in pursuing my education and career.

There are initiatives across Africa actively mentoring women in STEM. These initiatives are actively working towards bridging the gender gap in STEM fields by providing mentorship, training, networking, and support systems that empower African women to excel and thrive in STEM. They include African Women in Science and Engineering (AWSE), Society of Women Engineers (SWE) Africa, TechWomen Africa, African Women in Agricultural Research and Development (AWARD) and Next Einstein Forum (NEF) Fellows Program. I would like to highlight two more that have transformed my career.

The Institution of Engineers of Kenya (IEK) has a mentorship platform under the Women Engineers Chapter. By linking mentees with established professionals, the mentorship program provides access to a broader range of opportunities, including internships and collaborative projects. Additionally, mentoring enhances personal and professional networks, making job hunting easier when the time comes. Engaging with women engineers has played a pivotal role in boosting my confidence and challenging stereotypes that discourage women from entering and building engineering careers.

I am currently a mentee under Mentoring future women graduates in STEM in Africa implemented by the University of Plymouth and funded by the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAE). My mentor Euphresia Luseka has guided me in career mapping and held me accountable to achieving my goals. She encouraged me to envision myself in leadership roles within STEM. As mentees progress in their careers, they often become mentors themselves, creating a ripple effect that contributes to a sustainable increase in the number of women pursuing and excelling in STEM fields.

African women in STEM should proactively utilize such programs that aim to connect them with experienced mentors, offering support, guidance, and networking opportunities to advance their careers in STEM.

Finding Your Mentor and Grow Towards Your Goals

A mentee must identify what you hope to achieve through mentorship. Clarify your career aspirations, areas for improvement, or specific skills you want to develop. Leverage professional networks, both online and offline, to connect with individuals who align with your goals. LinkedIn and industry associations have been particularly helpful to me. Subsequently, identify potential mentors, initiate contact through a polite and concise message. Express your admiration for their work and articulate why you seek their mentorship.

The mentorship relationship needs to be built and nurtured. Where possible, invest time in building a relationship before formally asking for mentorship. Attend their activities, engage in discussions, or seek advice on specific topics to establish rapport. Define the structure, frequency of meetings, and specific areas you hope to focus on during the mentorship. Open communication is key to a successful mentorship.

Mindfulness in any relationship enhances gratitude and satisfaction, and mentorship is no exception. Explicitly recognizing the four pillars of mentorship (trust, respect, expectation, communication) strengthens the relationship and makes it more effective.

Paying it Forward keeps the Future of Mentorship Bright

“In learning you will teach, and in teaching you will learn.”
Phil Collins

For women in STEM fields, loneliness can be a major disincentive. Through the connection of women with similar experiences, mentoring fosters a sense of community. This network of support not only advances their career path but also makes the STEM field more diverse and inclusive.

In the quest to increase the number of African women in STEM fields, mentoring serves as a ray of hope. Mentorship programs have the capacity to unleash the full range of creativity and talent present on the continent by establishing a culture of support, encouragement, and direction.

As Our World in Data reveals, it is worth noting that while economic gender disparities are still prevalent and significant, they are now less than they were a few decades ago. As we celebrate the successes of women who have broken barriers in STEM, let us also commit to paying it forward, creating a future where the brilliance of African women in STEM shines as a beacon of progress and inspiration.

About the author:

Njeri Ngugi is a female Graduate Engineer finalising a Master’s degree in Environmental and Biosystems Engineering (Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering) and holds a Bachelor’s degree in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering. She is registered with the Engineers Board of Kenya (EBK) as an EIA/EA Associate Expert with a passion for Integrated Water Resources Management, Multiple uses of water and the water-food-energy nexus. She is also a mentee with the Engineers Board of Kenya and Mentoring future women graduates in STEM in Africa project by the University of Plymouth and funded by Royal Engineering Academy UK.

USAID REAL-Water Explores the Impact of the Water Quality Assurance Fund on Ghana’s Water Sector Formalization

Read the full article here

Bono and Ahafo Region, Ghana — Ensuring the safety and quality of drinking water supplies is a pressing concern for public health. While urban areas often benefit from established procedures for water quality monitoring, rural regions frequently lack resources and expertise. This article, produced by USAID’s REAL-Water Activity, explores how a rural water innovation is shifting the communal mindset from “water is life” to “safe water is life,” emphasizing the importance of water quality and the heightened expectations for water operators. It also highlights the unique challenge that researchers face in meeting the growing demand for solutions, which often outpaces the rate at which they are able to complete their evaluations. The article elaborates on this “researcher’s dilemma” and its implications.

Related Resources

African children submit demands to governments to be first and fast to firm up climate change action in the water sector

Feature image: Ajoh Majur, 12, uses her body weight to activate a handpump. South Sudan, Photo Credit: Lynsey Addario

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, RWSN Leave No-one Behind Theame Leader

The SDG’s commitment to ‘Leave No One Behind’ means acceleration efforts must focus on reaching the most vulnerable groups; this includes children.

African children are born and grow in the climate crisis.

“Present and future generations of children will bear the brunt of the intensifying effects of the climate crisis throughout their lifetime, these impacts are already occurring,” said UNICEF.

UNICEF estimates that one billion children globally are at “extremely high” risk of suffering from impacts of the climate crisis. The need for action has never been more urgent. The climate crisis is a children’s rights crisis.

Since the adoption of the United Nations Convention on Rights of the Child (UNCRC) in 1989, unprecedented gains have been made for children. However, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), Special Report on Global Warming warns the progress risks undermining the escalating climate crisis, which poses an acute threat to children’s survival, development and well-being.

Short-term Thinking as a Triple Threat of Water-Related Crisis is Endangering the Lives of Africa’s Children

On August 2023, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child affirmed children’s right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment under General Comment No. 26. During the 2023 Human Rights Council the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Mr.Volker Türk, deplored that despite all the alarm bells going off, leaders were still not acting with the determination required and getting “stuck in the short term”.

“If this is not a human rights issue, what is?”, he asked.

Africa is facing a water catastrophe. While the climate and water-related shocks are escalating globally, the risks compound most for children in Africa; 40% of Africa’s population was under 15 years old in 2022. Children in 98 percent of African countries are at the highest risk from a convergence of three water-related threats: Inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene; Its related diseases; and Climate hazards. This is most acute in the Central African Republic, Chad, Nigeria, Guinea, Somalia, and Guinea-Bissau making West and Central Africa one of the world’s most water-insecure and climate-impacted regions.

The presence of a handpump does not mean that people have access to reliable and sustainable water services. Here’s how we tried to show it in eight councils in the Mvila Division, South Region of Cameroon.

By Victor Dang Mvongo, MSc, a PhD student at the University of Dschang (Cameroon) and an independent consultant in WASH. He conducted the work featured in this blog at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences.

Handpumps, the most common rural water supply equipment in sub-Saharan Africa, are a symbol of the sustainability issue facing rural water services. According to Macarthur (2015), handpumps are a lifesaver for 184 million people living in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan African statistics on handpumps’ functionality indicate that 36% of them are broken, with country-level rates varying from 10% to 65% (RWSN 2009).

In Cameroon, little data are available on the functionality of the handpump. However, Deal and Furey (2019) estimate that 32% of handpumps are non-functional. Thus, for the impacted rural areas, this means that the anticipated returns on investment—better health, nutrition, and education—are jeopardized. In order to mobilize the necessary national and international efforts in the region, this study intends to give local information on the functionality of handpumps in the Mvila Division (Southern Region of Cameroon).

Hydrogéologie du Sud de Madagascar: nouvel outil cartographique

BushProof Sàrl, mettant à profit une expérience de travail de plus de 15 ans dans le Sud de Madagascar, appuyé par deux hydrogéologues de la Direction du Développement et de la Coopération (DDC), s’est proposé de travailler de manière appropriée sur la connaissance des aquifères des régions du Sud de Madagascar. Ensembles, ils ont financé et créer un outil cartographique afin d’améliorer la connaissance du fonctionnement des eaux souterraines dans le Sud de Madagascar. Cet outil a été réalisé en 2023.

Le Sud de l’île de Madagascar connait, depuis plusieurs années, des périodes prolongées de sécheresse. Les populations locales grandissantes y ont aujourd’hui un accès très restreint à l’eau, ce qui engendre des conditions de vie dégradées. Pourtant, d’importantes d’eau transitent dans cette zone via des aquifères dont le fonctionnement reste mal connu.

Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems (2/3)

To unlock the economic potential and alleviate poverty in rural areas, access to improved water access crucial. Building upon the insights of the previous blog under the same title “Politics, Water Governance and Service Delivery Management Models for A Resilient Rural Water Sector”, this blog delves into the transformative power of adaptation and partnerships in addressing the challenges of the rural water sector. Discover how Kakamega County Government adopted Pilot Markets Based Water Service Delivery Management Models, its benefits and lessons.

Transforming Rural Water Management through Partnerships.

Between 2012-2015, SNV Kenya in partnership with Kenya Markets Trust and Adams Smith International designed a participatory action research based innovative programme; the Market Assistance Programme (MAP) that aimed at improving sustainability of rural and small towns’ water supply by engaging private firms. This project used the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) concept in analysing and designing models for post-construction management of water systems.

By addressing capacity of both public and private actors (formal and informal), SNV concluded space for interventions taking a market systems approach could be successful. The approach in Kakamega County included: (1) Market Research on willingness and ability to pay by consumers (2) Commercial Viability Assessments for rural water supplies (3) Modelling Private Public Community Partnerships (PPCPs) and business planning for private firms (4) Procurement, negotiation and contracting of private firms (5) Orientation and capacity building for the lease operator and nurturing relationships (6) Consumer Awareness, (7) Strengthening National and County level evidence-based policy lobbying and advocacy.

Kakamega County selected the Lease Operator Model (Refer to Figure 1 below) where a Water Service Board (Lake Victoria North Water Service Board) engaged a Lease Contract with the main Water Service Provider (WSP) in Kakamega; Kakamega County Water and Sanitation Co. (KACWASCO). The national water regulator (WASREB) approved the framework for water tariff setting and enforcement, while taking into consideration affordability and cost recovery principles. The project created awareness on the pros and cons of adopting Public Private Community Partnership Management Model, oriented KACWASCO on possible business opportunities and models; and supported public authorities (WSB and Kakamega County Government) on participatory and transparent procurement process. KACWASCO provided water services under a licensing regime/revenue payment model in Navakholo Sub- County. KACWASCO was attracted by the potential of increasing their bottom line and public sector investments in infrastructure to strengthen overall profitability.

Figure 1 Illustrating the Lease Operator Model

Results

The facilitated interventions improved sustainability of water services in Navakholo. KACWASCO was able to increase access to water for 8,330 people in underserved and unserved areas of Navakholo by 2015, whilst greater oversight opened the possibility for the county government support to improve services, collect data on performance, and demand accountability from them. Other results included:

Improved Management of Navakholo Rural Water Supplies:

In rural areas, improving management practice of Water Management Committees is key to improving sustainability.

SNV facilitated: (1) legal transformation of the Water Management Committees to Water Users Association (WUAs) to separate governance and management roles, and (2) engagement of KACWASCO Lease Contract that enabled professionalized management towards demand responsive service provision.

Access to Finance for the Lease Operator: During the initial stages of implementing the Lease Contract, financing rehabilitation works to operationalise unfunctional systems was a key issue. If KACWASCO were to borrow from a commercial market (at a high interest rate of 18-21%) notwithstanding the risks, the water tariff had to be increased to ensure the water supplies are commercially viable which would be unaffordable for the poor. MAP designed a water-financing product, using blended subsidy concept, to enable WSPs access market finance.

It is worth noting that taking a market systems approach in the water sector is complicated given the public nature of water. A purely free-market approach was fraught with risks and could lead to inequitable access, meaning careful consideration had to be given to the role of the public sector. SNV first evaluated the rural water sector, highlighting potential for growth in services delivery. Whilst assets were publicly owned and activities regulated by WASREB, there was room for commercial incentives. Profits were generated through tariffs and connection/reconnection fees, creating potential for private sector investment that encouraged the uptake of the water financing product.

Public Sector Capacity Strengthening: The PPP procurement is different from the traditional procurement of good and services, as the payment for the PPP’s is mainly made from the projected revenues of the water systems. A high level of trust, mutual commitment to set objectives and clearly defined incentives for KACWASCO was created.
Policy Advocacy and Support: The entire concept of PPCP and private sector participation was a relatively new concept in the rural water sector. Therefore, the project supported evidence-based policy advocacy and improvements at national and county levels; MAP supported the State Department for Water in developing PPP tools and guidelines and in improving coordination and communication through National PPP Node.

Lessons

The success of any SDM pilot depends a lot on learning and adaptation to provide an effective evidence base for policy and regulatory adjustments. Overall, there was a huge potential for PPPs to improve sustainability, service levels and revenues through operational and managerial efficiencies. Change of mind sets takes time MAP was time bound; the success of the model required strategic continuous engagement of all three groups of stakeholders: the water buyers (users), the water sellers (Lease operator) and the Sector policy and regulations makers (public authorities) to achieve sustainable outcomes. Particularly there was need to support Kakamega County in developing and implementing appropriate legislations, policies, guidelines so that PPPs are fully recognised and adopted to enhance scaling of the model through transparent procurement process and tools, financing, performance monitoring, learning and replication of emerging success of PPCPs, yet such documents take a lot of time and resources to be accented and adopted.

Through these partnerships and improved legislations and policies, the path is paved for understanding the institutional reforms and scaling solutions needed to achieve a sustainable rural water sector, fostering economic growth and improving livelihoods. More on “Scaling Sustainable Models can be found in the Blog 3 of “Politics, Water Governance and Service Delivery Management Models for A Resilient Rural Water Sector”

About the author:

Euphresia Luseka is a Water Governance Specialist and Co-Lead of RWSN Leave No-One Behind Theme. She is a seasoned Expert with experience in leadership, strategy development, partnerships and management in WASH sector nationally, regionally and internationally. She has specialised in WASH Public Policy, Business Development Support Strategies and Institutional Strengthening of urban and rural WASH Institutions. Euphresia has several publications and research work in her field.

Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems (1/3)

Photo: Lumino Containarised Water Project in Kakamega County, Kenya financed on PPP at US$765,000 serving 8,000 Households

Water has a profound bearing on health, human dignity. Inequalities in access to safe rural drinking as an input for economic growth towards alleviating poverty reinforce wider inequalities in opportunities. This blog explores the economic significance of improved water access, its role as a fundamental input for economic growth, and the challenges faced by Kakamega County’s rural water sector.

A Well Governed and Effective Rural Water Sector has Potential to Spur its Economic Growth and Alleviate Poverty Levels

The case for strengthening the Rural Water Sector in Kakamega County, Kenya continues to be solid; across Sub-Saharan Africa, universal access to improved water and basic sanitation could lead to economic gains of 34.7 billion USD per year. The UN calculates a global cost-benefit ratio of 2.0 times more for improved drinking water. Kenya’s development blueprint, Vision 2030, targets a 10% Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate per year from 2012 to 2030. Water plays a fundamental role in enabling this growth as a necessary input for agriculture, manufacturing, blue economy and so on, in fact 78% of jobs globally are dependent on water. Similarly in Kakamega County, Water is an essential resource for economic growth, health and quality of life. Recognizing this, the County Government of Kakamega aims to ensure access to improved water for all by 2030, in line with Sustainable Development Goal six and its current Governor’s Political Manifesto for the year 2022-2027 affirmed and budgeted for in their County Integrated Development Plan 2022-2027; the main planning document guiding Counties development.

Systemic Challenges in Kakamega’s Rural Water Functionality in the year 2012

Overall and nationally, the strategy for Socially Responsible Commercialisation (SRC) as pioneered by the Water Act of 2002 was successful in urban and peri-urban areas in Kenya but the concept dismally realised its potential in the rural areas where service provision areas are small, water coverage, usage and willingness to pay is low. Towards addressing the challenge, the Community Based Management Model was rolled out with an objective of empowering communities towards enhancing sustainability. There are few cases of the success of the model, Kakamega County faced the following challenges:

Rural Water Knowledge Gap: Kenya’s National Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) Impact Report 10 indicated that it is ‘not in a position to provide detailed information on rural areas with regards to rural water supply and sanitation coverage’. This information gap made it impossible to respond to key rural water indicators in Kakamega County and undermined assessing whether investments were translated to impact reflected in increased water coverage. This also explained why despite Kakamega County being predominantly rural, water sector investments were skewed towards the urban water sub-sector that had validated data.
Non-Functionality and Weak Management of Rural Water Supplies: A Water Point Mapping (WPM) Report by SNV Kenya in 2012 revealed that 59% of Kakamega water points had no professional manager. Those managed by voluntary Water Management Committees (WMCs) reported non-compliance, unaccountability and lack of skills in managing and operating the water supplies. This was worrying because in case of a breakdown, the water supplies stood a high risk of complete abandonment. Further 60% of residents in rural areas did not pay for water. The lack of consumer focus and incentives for private sector contributed to the inability to attract alternative financing support. The limited funds, when available from NGOs and public authorities, were depleted in maintenance with no or minimal resources available to expand services to un-served areas.
Equity and Inclusion: The WPM exposed a concern about fair budget allocation and distribution of infrastructure in rural areas. The poor purchased unreliable poor-quality water from vendors at higher rates compared to those with household connections. The glaring evidence that some areas had fewer safe water infrastructure was attributed to politics; areas that voted the government of the day had better allocations.

Understanding the importance of a resilient rural water sector in alleviating poverty sets the foundation for exploring innovative approaches and partnerships in the next blog of “Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems.”

About the author:

Credits for the Photos: Euphresia Luseka

Measuring water point functionality is trickier than you’d think. Here’s how we tried to make it more reliable in Uganda.

If you measure something, how do you know that someone else would get the same result? This is a fundamental question in many fields including medicine and psychology, but it is rarely considered in rural water supply.

This is a guest blog by Daniel W. Smith, a Water & Sanitation Advisor at the Center for Water Security, Sanitation, and Hygiene at USAID in Washington, DC.

Photo: A handpump mechanic performs preventive maintenance in Uganda
(Photo: Daniel W. Smith)

This problem became painfully apparent during a recent study of professionalizing handpump maintenance in Uganda conducted by the Program for Water, Health, and Development at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment and International Lifeline Fund. Our data collection team had a seemingly straightforward instruction: Count a handpump as functional if it provides water. But different data collectors interpreted the instruction differently. Some would count a handpump as functional even if it took a long time to get a little water. Others counted handpumps in a similar condition as nonfunctional. We needed a clearer, more reliable procedure to ensure that handpump functionality measured by different people would be comparable.

Strengthening accountability for water

This blog is based on the Accountability for Water action and research programme funded by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and managed by the Partnership For African Social and Governance Research (PASGR), supported by Water Witness International, KEWASNET and Shahidi Wa Maji. The full webinar summary is available here.

On 15th December 2022, a global webinar was held to discuss the critical importance of accountability for water. During the webinar, a partnership of organizations led by PASGR and Water Witness presented the findings of their Accountability for Water research program, which aimed to identify specific actions to strengthen accountability in different contexts. The programme partners involved in the research include KEWASNET, Shahidi Wa Maji, WaterAid, Water Integrity Network, End Water Poverty, IRC, and World Bank. Dr Pauline Ngimwa and Dr Muthio Nzau of PASGR introduced the webinar.

Dr Tim Brewer of Water Witness gave an overview of the research programme which started with the global review of evidence carried out in 2019-2020. According to this review, 80% of the research papers on accountability found that interventions contributed to improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services and water resource management (WRM). Common lessons emerged with clear recommendations for action by governments, civil society, donors and others. While a key lesson is that accountability is context specific, an analytical framework based on the “5 Rs of accountability” can be used to identify specific challenges and opportunities within this framework – the ability to review, explain, and report performance against rules, responsibilities, and obligations, and to react constructively to improve performance through sanctions, incentives, or corrective measures.

The review identified a series of knowledge gaps and questions, including gender, donors, government responsiveness, measurement, and civic space. Based on this analysis, 14 Professional Research Fellows (PRF) working in the water sector in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Liberia, and Zimbabwe from a range of government, civil society and academic institutions investigated accountability issues in their own contexts. The full list of research topics and researchers is at the bottom of this blog.

The following key takeaways for governments, civil society organizations (CSOs), and donors were drawn from a compilation of recommendations from the research projects .Presenters included Dr Firehiwot Sintayehu (Addis Ababa University); Eunice Kivuva (CESPAD); Chitimbwa Chifunda (WaterAid Zambia), The full list of research topics and researchers at the end of this blog demonstrates the depth and breadth of evidence underlying these recommendations .

Three key takeaways for governments

Laws, policies and accountability mechanisms are essential to support accountability. However, lack of clarity and consistency between sectors and levels, a lack of knowledge and capacity about the laws and mechanisms, and weak enforcement often undermine these. Therefore, the key recommendations are to:
- Harmonise, strengthen, and execute laws and policies for water resources and WASH at national and subnational levels,
- Strengthen accountability systems and relationships: mechanisms, standards, regulation, monitoring, stakeholder engagement and enforcement including for the private sector,
- Build capacity on accountability, develop an accountable outlook and de-politicise accountability systems.
Clear roles and responsibilities and better coordination: Accountability mechanisms are often let down by poor coordination, unclear or conflicting roles and responsibilities and widespread lack of enforcement. Key actions required are to:
- Clarify institutional roles and responsibilities between actors for WASH and WRM – eliminate conflicts in functions,
- Separate implementation and regulatory institutions,
- Strengthen horizontal and vertical institutional and sector coordination across water users through enforceable accountability systems and mechanisms.
Informed engagement with citizens and users: All the researchers found that effective engagement with citizens, citizen groups and water users is essential for accountability but wanting. To address this governments need to:
- Introduce or strengthen accountability mechanisms such as public hearings and citizen oversight panels,
- Provide Information, education, and mobilisation for communities ensure access for marginalised groups,
- Support civil society to vertically integrate social accountability initiatives into decision making at different levels,
- Support coordination amongst actors to increase the capacity of rural women and marginalised communities to participate in problem analyses and decision-making processes.

Three key takeaways for civil society,

Activate and institutionalise effective citizen oversight mechanisms. As well as the government actions to strengthen engagement with citizens and water users Civil society organisations need to support this, they should:
- Advocate for more legally institutionalised avenues of citizen oversight,
- Ensure that citizens’ monitoring and advocacy initiatives are vertically and strategically integrated in decision making at all levels,
- Carry out budget tracking throughout the whole cycle from planning to expenditure.
Build capacity, empowerment and organise communities. A very common cause of weak accountability is the low levels of knowledge and capacity of water users about their rights, the laws and responsibilities around water provision and resource management, and how they can use accountability mechanisms. Civil society organisations need to:
- Build capacity on accountability mechanisms and support their use,
- Strengthen grassroots user groups and associations to participate in decision making,
- Support civil society and water users, especially women, to move up the Participation ladder from token participation to active participation, decision making, and control.
Build on what works, like budget tracking, evidence-based advocacy, litigation. There is growing knowledge about successful strategies for strengthening accountability. This research has helped to strengthen a community of practice on accountability and identify examples that others can learn from. Key lessons for civil society are to:
- Strike a balance between constructive and critical approaches to advocacy,
- Bring strong evidence for advocacy,
- Raise awareness of WASH and WRM issues amongst all stakeholders including citizens, government and development partners.

Four key takeaways for donors and private sector

Support governments and CSOs to strengthen accountability frameworks, monitoring and enforcement. Donors can provide financial and political support for the actions for governments and civil society mentioned above. They need to:
- Support governments on WASH and WRM accountability actions as above,
- Support CSO actions as above,
- Support good governance and democratic space for citizens’ voice. Citizens’ engagement is critical to enhancing accountability,
- Invest in women’s participation and reaching marginalised people,
- Strengthen political will for accountability. Donors can influence government priorities,
- Invest seriously in sustainability.
Water investments need to go beyond projects. They need to:
- Go beyond procedural & financial accountability. For example strengthen basins planning to ensure responsible industrial water use,
- Support budget tracking through the cycle – budget tracking is an effective tool to improve budget performance,
- Invest in appropriate technology to support accountable and responsive services, For example digital monitoring of services and water treatment technology to prevent pollution of water resources.
Enhance due diligence. Researchers found examples of very weak accountability in economic uses of water by industrial and agricultural actors. Donors and private investors can help strengthen accountability by requiring:
- Stronger due diligence of companies in relation to water use,
- mandatory reporting on water,
- promoting and enforcing the Polluter pays principle
Be accountable! Donors are major investors in the water sector but often do not fulfil their commitments. For example in Zambia the WASH sector is 80% funded by Donors but only 29% of that was tracked through the budget.
- Accountability Mechanisms are needed to enable Governments and CSO to hold Donors accountable for their commitments.

Discussion and next steps

During the webinar, Sareen Malik from KEWASNET, emphasised the importance of legislation to strengthen accountability mechanisms. NGOs can play an important role to advocate for this and bring stakeholders together in Joint Sector reviews as a critical mechanism for accountability, monitoring and reporting.

Martin Atela of PASGR reflected on the role of politics in undermining accountability and suggested that political interference can be mitigated by greater clarity on roles and boundaries of ministerial responsibilities. He also emphasized the need to find ways to work with political elites so they see the value in change

Next steps involve joining the community of practice on accountability for water, to continue learning from experience and to advocate for commitments to strengthen accountability.

Research partners are organising an event at the UN Conference on Water 2023: “Where is the accountability” on Tuesday 21^st March, driving a greater emphasis on governance and accountability. This needs to be front and centre of all discussion.

The Research programme is managed by the Partnership for African Social and Governance Research (PASGR) and Water Witness International with financial support from the Hewlett Foundation.

More information about the research is on the website including findings from the global review of evidence, recorded presentations from webinars at World Water Week 2022 in Stockholm, presentations from country specific webinars, and summary briefings of all the research topics. www.accountabilityforwater.org

List of Research topics, Professional Research Fellows and host institutions

Ethiopia

Government Dynamics of Accountability in Ethiopia, Mulugeta Gashaw, Water Witness Ethiopia
Political Economy Analysis of water governance, Asnake Kefale
Risks and opportunities for growth in Ethiopia’s textile and apparel industries, Esayas Samuel
Wastewater management in upstream catchment of ARB, Yosef Abebe, Addis Ababa University and Ministry of Water and Energy
Accountability of the One WASH National Programme of Ethiopia, Michael Negash, PSI
Towards a sustainable management of faecal sludge: the case of Addis Ababa, Tamene Hailu
Alwero Dam governance, Firehiwot Sentayu, Addis Ababa University

Kenya

Government Dynamics of Accountability in Kenya, Dr Tiberius Barasa
Enhancing coordination for accountability and sustainability in water resources management; a case of Kerio sub-catchment in Baringo rift valley basin. Eunice Kivuva (CESPAD)
Kakamega County Water and Sanitation Company, Kenya. Mary Simiyu, Kakamega Water Service Provider
Rural Women and water decisions in Kwale and Kilifi Counties, Felix Brian, KWAHO
Strengthening accountability in solid waste management through incentives and penalties in Naivasha, Kenya, Naomi Korir, Sanivation

Tanzania

Government Dynamics of Accountability in Tanzania, Dr Opportuna Kweka
Assessment of Gender Power Relations and Accountability in Community Based Water Supply Operators in Selected Water Basins of Tanzania, Pitio Ndyeshumba, Institute of Lands
Regulatory and Legal Accountability for Water Pollution in Tanzania: The Case of Msimbazi River Basin in Dar es Salaam City, Mwajuma Salum, University of Dar Es Salaam
Opportunities and challenges of accountability claiming in Tanzania’s water sector, Dr Parestico Pastory, University of Dodoma

Zambia

What makes budget advocacy an effective accountability tool, Bubala Muyove, NGO WASH Forum and Chitimbwa Chifunda, WaterAid Zambia

Zimbabwe

Assessing the effectiveness and impact of statutory accountability mechanisms to improve water service provision and catchment management, Mable Murambiwa, Combined Harare Residents Association, Zimbabwe

Liberia

Accountability Challenges in The Liberia Water-Supply Sector: LWSC in Robertsport and Kakata, Timothy Kpeh, United Youth for Peace, Liberia

About the author: This blog is authored by Louisa Gosling, freelance specialist in accountability, rights and inclusion in WASH, previously working with WaterAid and as chair of RWSN.

A Mentoring journey, by Fadzai T. Munodawafa and Kerstin Danert

For International Women’s Day, we would like to highlight two participants from the RWSN Mentoring programme for young professionals and women, Fadzai T. Munodawafa-Bhurabhura (from Zimbabwe) and Dr Kerstin Danert (from Switzerland). You can find out more about their experience of mentoring through RWSN below. RWSN plans on launching a new edition of the mentoring programme soon, and encourages women of all ages in the water sector to sign up. To find out more, sign up to become a RWSN member today.

Mentorship is a reciprocal learning relationship in which a mentor and mentee work collaboratively toward the achievement of mutually-defined goals that will develop a mentee’s skills, abilities, knowledge, and/or thinking.

Fadzai’s words:

I am Fadzai T. Munodawafa, a WASH professional with an international Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) in Zimbabwe. I support teams who implement WASH in the rural communities in Zimbabwe. In addition, I am responsible for managing the drilling unit of the organisation. With such responsibilities as a young professional, I sought to increase my understanding of rural and urban water supply and sanitation as well as groundwater monitoring, which both have a significant bearing on improving access to water for under-privileged communities.

A message of invitation for young professionals in the water sector to join the mentorship programme under the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) was shared on the Zimbabwe WASH Cluster platform. I thought this was an opportunity to learn from senior professionals and firm up my career. Following acceptance within the mentorship programme in 2020, I was linked with Dr Kerstin Danert a water sector professional researcher and facilitator.

Kerstin’s words:

I am Kerstin Danert, a rural water supply professional who has been active in RWSN since 2004, when I was still living and working in Uganda. I work as a consultant, with a range of types of work including research, training, facilitation and knowledge-brokering. I currently live in Switzerland.

Fadzai’s words:

My mentorship experience was a flexible one where I would ask questions or a raise discussion point and Kerstin would have a topic for discussion for our scheduled meetings. During our 9-month mentorship relationship, Kerstin and I discussed broadly on topics such as groundwater management, remote sensing and sustainable community-based management of water points key areas that have helped me in my career in the water sector. Kerstin’s experience in sub-Saharan Africa and remote areas made our connection easy as she could relate to my experiences and questions.

Kerstin’s words:

Our mentoring relationship commenced just as I was branching out to start my own company, which unfortunately coincided with the start of the Covid pandemic. It was not an easy time (as we all know), and I was worried as to whether my company would even survive. It very soon became apparent that this would not be a one-way mentorship by any means. Fadzai not only helped me to make contact with field realities (which I was very much missing), but also gave me a lot of support and encouragement regarding my new venture.

Fadzai’s words:

As a young professional, I was not confident speaking in public forums, a weakness my mentor helped me to work on. Now I can confidently speak in professional forums following her encouragement. Our engagement also looked into working on my resume and boost it to showcase the experience and skills I have. In addition, she connected me with experienced drillers and water specialists in Zimbabwe.

Kerstin’s words

Although I have now worked in the water sector for over 25 years always as a consultant, I still remain concerned work may not come in going forwards. Further, I think that I had began to take my years of experience for granted. The exchanges with Fadzai helped me to fully appreciate that I am actually not at the start of my working life, but (hopefully) in the middle of it with a lot under my belt already!

Both of us

Since the mentorship programme under RWSN, we have kept in touch resulting in our participation in the UNHS Climate and Gender podcast on Global Partnership: Gender, Progression and Climate-Orientated Careers (The UNHS Podcast and Spotify) in 2021. The following year, our mentorship led us to work on a report and video documenting the impact stories from participants of online courses on professional drilling by the RWSN

Fadzai’s words:

As a result of my mentorship experience, I can more effectively allocate my time for various activities, connect and confidently engage with other professionals in the water sector as well as have knowledge on key aspects of documentation. I highly recommend other young professionals to join the mentorship program that will build them up in their career within the water sector. Many thanks to the RWSN for this amazing and life changing experience.

Kerstin’s words:

This mentorship brought me closer to the field again. I learned so much from the conversations with Fadzai – and drew insights from her into all of my ongoing assignments, whatever the topic in fact. She always had such insightful contributions to make. And I argue that I was the mentee just as much as Fadzai was. So I encourage others to take the time to get involved in this programme. It has been so rewarding and I look forward to finally meeting Fadzai one day! We have been talking regularly now for three years. A big thanks to RWSN for this chance.

To find out more information about the RWSN mentoring programme, please see here.