Leave No-one Behind – Page 2 – Rural Water Supply Network

A Tribute to Catarina de Albuquerque: A Legacy of Mandate and Momentum

Catarina de Albuquerque (1970–2025)

It is with heavy hearts that we pause, not to let grief diminish the force of her legacy, but to honor the fierce, unyielding presence of a foundational architect of human right to water. Catarina de Albuquerque (1970–2025) was a tireless expert who leveraged her wisdom, courage, and political will to change the world’s most basic equation.

Catarina’s career was a masterclass in strategic advocacy, dedicated to transforming an ethical concern into a concrete, legally binding global objective.

For us, her most monumental achievement was her brave assumption of the role as the first UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation (2008–2014). This work culminated in the unwavering declaration of the 2010 resolution by the UN General Assembly, formally recognising access to water and sanitation as human rights. This was a critical shift, forged by her bold conviction, that moved the issue from a development challenge to a State obligation under the international human rights framework.

Catarina didn’t just advocate for recognition; she focused on accountability.

She ensured these rights were explicitly incorporated into the global development agenda, successfully driving their inclusion in Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6): “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.”
Her diplomatic force was also evident in her work presiding over the negotiations for the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (OP-ICESCR). This profound legal instrument created a mechanism for individuals to challenge human rights violations at the UN level, giving real teeth to economic and social rights.

As CEO of the Sanitation and Water for All – a UNICEF-hosted global partnership (SWA) partnership she continued to strategically mobilize high-level political will and financing, ensuring that policies prioritised the poorest and most marginalized, embodying the principle to leave no one behind.

For us, the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN), especially the Leave No One Behind Theme, Catarina provided the intellectual architecture necessary to fulfill our mandate. She moved beyond theory to provide us with actionable tools for implementation, ensuring the human rights framework was specifically tailored for the rural frontiers where we operate. Her collaborations directly strengthened RWSN’s technical focus by embedding social accountability and equity into service delivery models.

Her influential work, such as the book On the Right Track: Good Practices in Realising the Rights to Water and Sanitation, provided the necessary guidance for countries to operationalize these rights, directly informing our approach to national policy engagement.
She actively engaged with RWSN partners, notably through joint events like the World Bank and RWSN Webinar on the Human Right to Water, demonstrating her enduring commitment to bridging high-level policy with grassroots, rural implementation.

This strategic alignment means our commitment to the forgotten is a globally recognised legal duty, a legacy of her unparalleled expertise.

Catarina’s life offers a potent vision for every generation that follows, proving that policy is the highest form of power.

To the Youth, she demonstrated that a deep, determined focus on law and strategic advocacy is the lever for world-altering results. You are not merely inheritors of problems; you are the architects of the future legal reality for water and sanitation. Your fresh perspective and moral clarity are essential to holding power accountable and securing human rights.
To the Women in Water, Catarina is the indisputable proof of what a courageous, intellectual, fiercely determined woman can achieve. She was the one who shattered the ceiling and demanded accountability, showing women how to transform technical expertise into unassailable rights-based mandates. Your leadership is non-negotiable; Wield your power and be bold in its assertion.
And to the Global South, she is a powerful, undeniable call. She is the proof that our rightful place is not just to benefit from global policy, but to lead, command, and enforce the international human rights framework that demands equity for our communities. Our local experience is the unshakeable moral anchor that must drive global social justice.

Catarina’s greatest gift was not the victory itself, but the enduring reminder that our work is never done. Her unwavering commitment lights the path ahead, and her words continue to set our highest standard:

“I encourage you to continue the critical work you are all doing in recognising water, sanitation and hygiene as fundamental for all.” – Catarina, 2020

We honour her memory not through sorrow, but through renewed purpose, transforming grief into greater effort, deeper dedication, and higher quality in all we do. Inspired by her fearless leadership and strategic brilliance, we celebrate the progress she secured and press forward, with determination and wisdom, until the shared vision of universal water access becomes a reality for everyone, everywhere.

Written by Euphresia l, RWSN Leave No One Behind theme co-Lead, with inputs from Dr Amita Bhakta PhD, Sandra van Soelen, and Temple Chukwuemeka Oraeki, LNOB co-Leads.

How three male allies are advancing gender equity in Kenya’s water sector

Featured photo: Daily, millions of girls and women in Kenya walk for water, losing time, safety, and opportunity. Photographer: Euphresia Luseka

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

The views and opinions expressed in this blog post are those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) or its Executive Committee.

A Walk Before Dawn

At five in the morning, Busia County, Kenya is still wrapped in silence. But Jeruto is already walking. Fourteen years old, barefoot, a yellow jerrycan pressed into her hip. Three kilometres to water, three kilometres back.

She knows this path by heart. She also knows it is never safe. Men wait in the shadows. The price of water is sometimes not money but dignity. By the time she returns, the day has already slipped away; half her classes gone, her body exhausted, her hope dimmed.

“I was afraid,” she says. “But what choice did we have?”

This is the reality of women and girls without drinking water supplies on the premises every day stolen by the simple act of survival. And yet, here is the cruel paradox; when decisions are made about water, women are nowhere in the room. They carry the heaviest burden but hold the least power. The sector is still led by men.

That irrationality is finally being challenged. In western Kenya, three men, yes, men are ripping up the old rules of water and power. They are saying: enough. Not with platitudes, not with empty gender policies that gather dust, but with radical reforms that change who gets to sit at the table, who gets paid, who gets promoted, who gets heard.

And the truth they have stumbled into is this; Gender equity is not tokenism. It is infrastructure. It is resilience. It is the difference between a girl chained to a jerrycan and a girl being educated.

When Water Becomes Opportunity

The revolution begins small. For Jeruto, it started with the hum of a drilling rig. Just metres from her school gate, the Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) sunk a borehole. Water surged from the ground, and with it, time, safety, and dignity returned to her life.

The 3 hours she once lost on the road became minutes. Within a year, girls’ local schools’ attendance had risen by nearly 30 percent.

For Joel Wamalwa, the agency’s CEO, this borehole was not just a piece of engineering. It was a revelation.

“Water unlocks education, strengthens health, reduces risks of violence, and frees women’s time for work and enterprise,” he says. “When women are included in planning and leadership, water systems become not only more equitable but more sustainable.”

Water, he insists, is not only a service. It is a multiplier.

Joel Wamalwa, CEO LVNWWDA says water is a Multiplier, Photographer: Euphresia Luseka

The Paradox of Exclusion

And yet, Joel has spent much of his career staring at a contradiction that borders on absurd. Women carry the heaviest weight of water scarcity rationing supplies, absorbing the stress of breakdowns, managing survival when systems fail. They are the first to wake, the last to sleep, the ones who walk the farthest.

But when utilities gather to make decisions on staffing, on budgets, on infrastructure women are almost invisible.

“We made choices about them without them,” he says quietly. “That was not only unjust. It was inefficient.”

The numbers from Mckinsey back him up. Utilities with gender-diverse leadership are 21 per cent more profitable. Boards with women deliver up to 95 per cent higher returns. For Joel, the conclusion is obvious: “Equity is not compliance. It’s not tokenism. It’s strategy.”

UNQUALIFIED WATER WORKERS AND FORGED CREDENTIALS: THE HIDDEN CORRUPTION UNDERMINING SDG 6

Photograph 1 Showing a Graduate in Kenya, Source: NTV Kenya

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

The views and opinions expressed in this blog post are those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) or its Executive Committee.

Fake Qualifications, Real Consequences: The Brenda Sulungai Case

Across Africa, water utilities are expected to be drivers of sustainable development, climate resilience, and digital transformation. Yet beneath this ambition lies a disturbing contradiction: highly complex systems are being operated by staff who, in most cases, lack even the basic credentials to do the job.

Despite major gains in infrastructure and technology investments, Kenya’s water utilities continue to underperform often not due to a lack of funding or innovation, but because of the human capital crisis festering within. I have witnessed strategic plans, technological upgrades, and donor-funded initiatives collapse under the weight of a talent base that was never prepared or licensed.

In July 2025, Brenda Nelly Sulungai a former staff at Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NCWSC), was arraigned in a Kenyan Court, for forgery, uttering a false document, and deceiving a principal to gain employment. The Sulungai case demonstrates that the underlying problem extends far beyond individual misconduct on fraudulent activities, but rather the existing system permits such deception to occur and persist undetected for long. A fundamental breakdown exists in the accountability mechanisms embedded within the Human resources ecosystem of Water Corporations and Utilities.

This blog analyses the technical, legal and operational risks posed by weak certification systems, forgery, and unqualified staffing across Kenya’s water sector. It also proposes a plan for professionalising the sector, building institutional resilience, and restoring public’s vital trust.

The Pervasive Scale of Credential Fraud

“Every academic certificate in Kenya is now questionable. Forgery is happening across all sectors including those critical to life like water and health. We cannot ignore this anymore.” –Twalib Mbarak, CEO, Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (EACC)

This stark statement captures the magnitude of Kenya’s credential fraud crisis as a structural failure that compromises public service integrity at scale as demonstrated in Box 1.

Box 1: Sector-Wide Credential Fraud Uncovered in National Audit

Following a 2022 presidential directive, the Kenya National Qualifications Authority (KNQA), in collaboration with the EACC and the Public Service Commission (PSC), audited academic and professional credentials across 400+ public institutions. Of 47,000 employment records reviewed, over 10,000 (30%) were forged or unverifiable documents. Credential fraud in Water Service Providers (WSPs) flourished under conditions of decentralised recruitment, limited HR oversight, and politicised hiring. Frontline operational roles such as meter readers, plant technicians, lab staff, and revenue officers are especially vulnerable to infiltration by individuals presenting forged or non-accredited certificates. In a coastal county, 5 out of 8; 63% of water treatment technicians lacked formal technical certification highlighting serious lapses in frontline hiring. WSPs such as Nairobi City and Garissa Water & Sewerage Company were cited for fraudulent promotions and appointments. The audit prompted a directive requiring all WSPs to submit comprehensive staff verification reports. EACC investigated over 2,000 public servants for holding fraudulent academic qualifications. In parallel, PSC has flagged more than 1,200 employees with irregular documentation in public institutions, signalling collapse in credential verification and HR governance.

“This is systemic. There are falsified documents even at PhD level, dissertations are downloaded from the internet.” – Dr. David Oginde, Chairperson, EACC

Senior public officials have not minced words. Head of Public Service Felix Koskei has declared the forged qualifications surge a ‘national emergency.’ PSC Chairman, Anthony Muchiri emphasised the urgency of cultural reform, framing the restoration of integrity as both a legal and moral imperative.

Consequently, this is not simply a matter of individual misconduct it points to a systemic failure in verification systems, risk management, and institutional accountability.

The Grave Consequences: Incompetence Endangering Lives and Undermining Progress

The human capital crisis in Kenya’s water sector driven by systemic weaknesses in credential verification, licensing, and staff training is not only an administrative oversight but threatens public health and utility performance.

Improper chlorine dosing, no action on bacteriological alerts and contaminated boreholes link to unqualified personnel, contributing to recurrent outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid. Therefore, Water sector HR reforms must be framed not just as a governance issue, but as a public health and national security imperative.

“You cannot digitize your way out of poor staffing. At some point, someone has to operate the system.”

The human resource crisis is also undermining the operational stability and financial viability of Kenya’s WSPs. Underqualified technical staff routinely mismanage complex systems like SCADA and GIS, leading to frequent breakdowns and service disruptions. Poorly trained revenue officers contribute to billing errors, customer dissatisfaction, and 30% revenue leakage crippling reinvestment in maintenance and training. Even as utilities embrace digitisation, adoption is hindered by a lack of skills and internal resistance to change. Without parallel investment in the human capabilities needed to run and sustain infrastructure, digital and capital investments risk failing to deliver impact.

Sustainable transformation requires human capital to be treated as a core infrastructure asset.

Systemic Vulnerabilities and Their Underlying Causes

I. Governance Deficit: Institutional Decay Through Political Capture

Kenya’s water sector suffers from a foundational governance breakdown; WASREB, the national water regulator notes a few WSPs have structured HR policies, indicating systemic weakness. Other gaps include: Outdated job descriptions, Irregular or absent performance reviews and Non-existent competency frameworks.

“Staff appointments in WSPs are frequently driven by tenure, local allegiances, or political alignment rather than technical merit. This erosion of meritocracy is neither incidental nor benign; it is indicative of deliberate political capture.”— Charles Chitechi, President, Water Sector Workers Association of Kenya (WASWAK)

Even WSP BODs that are governance bulwarks, are compromised. Opaque recruitment, undertrained members, and entrenched conflicts of interest have rendered them susceptible to patronage.

This politicisation has real operational costs, including poor service delivery, stagnant capacity, and a rise in credential forgery.

II. Regulatory Void: Absence of Mandatory Professional Licensing

Despite being designated as Kenya’s 16 critical infrastructure sectors, the water sector lacks a national mandatory licensing framework. Unlike medicine or engineering, no statutory barrier prevents an unqualified person from operating a treatment plant. Training institutions exist, including KEWI, NITA, and TVETs, but certification is inconsistent, and unenforced. Most alarming is the absence of a centralised professional registry, allowing forgeries to pass undetected unless exposed by whistleblowers.

Kenya’s current policy approach enables fraud by omission. The lack of a licensing regime is not a gap; it is a deliberate vulnerability.

III. Investment Blind Spot: Human Capital as the Missing Infrastructure

According to WASREB, Kenya’s WSPs spend less than 1% of OPEX on staff training, compared to the 5%-7% benchmark in high-performing WSPs globally. This chronic underinvestment in people creates a compounding deficit: Stagnant skills lead to operational bottlenecks, Low morale drives attrition and disengagement and Poor efficiency increases non-revenue water (NRW).

“You cannot digitize your way out of poor staffing. At some point, someone has to operate the system.”

A study by AfDB found that targeted training investment can lead to 20%-30% efficiency gains. The false economy of skipping training leads to far greater costs through system failures and revenue loss.

These figures make the business case clear. Training is not a cost; it is a strategic investment with measurable returns.

IV. Project Design Fallacy: Infrastructure Without Operators

Despite significant investments in tools such as GIS mapping, NRW audit software, and digital billing systems, Kenya’s utilities remain trapped in underperformance.

From experience, the primary reason infrastructure projects fail is they’re often designed for a workforce that does not yet exist. Few pause to ask: Who will operate, manage, and sustain these systems?

This leads to predictable implementation failures. Development partners often assume that technology adoption is a standalone solution, overlooking the critical human capability gap.

Table 1 Showing Summary of Systemic Failures and Strategic Fixes

Root Problem	Underlying Cause	Strategic Fix
Politicized HR and opaque recruitment	Governance failure	Independent oversight and merit-based systems
Weak mandatory licensing	Regulatory neglect	National framework aligned with global standards
Minimal training investment	Financial and strategic myopia	Mandated 5% OPEX for staff development
Failed technology implementations	Ignored human capacity gap	Capacity-first planning and project sequencing

Towards Resilience: Five Strategic Levers to Professionalize Kenya’s Water Sector

Kenya’s water sector is confronting a systemic talent crisis, addressing these challenges requires a structural response anchored in global best practices, informed by local constraints, and focused on long-term institutional resilience. This plan outlines 4 interlocking strategic levers designed to professionalize the sector and establish talent as a core infrastructure asset.

Lever	Core Insight	Priority Actions	Strategic Shift	Expected Outcome
Proactive Credential Verification	Shift from post-hire audits to real-time identity checks	Integrate KNQA/KUCCPS into hiring- Enforce role-based access protocols. Adopt zero-trust frameworks	Link credential verification to hiring and promotions	Pre-employment fraud prevention; increased hiring integrity
Mandatory Licensing for Technical Roles	Legalise role-based licensing to ensure competence	Establish national licensing board- Align with NQFs- Phase rollout starting with public-facing roles	Make licensing a prerequisite for key technical roles	Professionalised, accountable workforce
Performance-Driven HR Governance	Replace tenure-based hiring with performance-linked systems	Implement HR scorecards tied to KPIs- Map skills to close gaps- Link career progression to performance	Institutionalise meritocracy and depoliticise HR	Talent aligned with service outcomes; improved retention
Strategic Learning Investment	Treat training as core infrastructure, not a cost centre	Mandate 5% OPEX for learning- Deploy centralized Learning Management System- Align training to operational KPIs	Make capacity-building part of financial and project planning	Technically agile, continuously upskilled workforce

Conclusion: Talent Is Infrastructure

Kenya’s water systems are only as effective as the people who plan, operate, and maintain them. As the World Bank warns, weak water institutions can turn climate risks into crises undermining resilience across health, agriculture, and energy systems.

The Brenda Nelly Sulungai case shows credential fraud is not just a governance lapse it’s a national risk multiplier. Amid climate stress and population growth, human error becomes infrastructure failure.

Reform must begin and end with people. Priority actions include:

Verifying identities and qualifications through real-time credential checks
Mandating professional licensing to close technical regulatory gaps
Investing in structured, ongoing training
Aligning performance systems with merit-based progression
Fostering a culture of accountability, technical rigor, and service

These steps reflect a central truth: talent is infrastructure.

Former President Mwai Kibaki, UNESCO’s Special Envoy for Water in Africa, put it clearly: “We need to commit ourselves to turning actions into real reforms… and together we can make Africa water secure and peaceful.”

Pastoralists and Water 1 – my first blog on the topic

Dr Kerstin Danert, Ask for Water Ltd, Edinburgh, Scotland

It was in 1998 when I started to work and then live in Uganda that I first really started to hear the term “Pastoralist”. That was in relation to the Karamojong (also spelt or Karimojong) – a group of people living in the semi-arid environments of north-eastern Uganda. At the time, although my knowledge of pastoralism was extremely poor, I was not fully comfortable with some of the derogatory language used about these people. However, it was hard to counteract the stereotyping and stigma that I was hearing. My efforts in relation to rural water supply had started, and continued to be with communities that were fairly, or very well settled; and if they moved in large numbers, this was primarily to flee widespread conflict and danger or settle back home again.

In my decade as a resident of the ‘Pearl of Africa’, it was largely considered too dangerous to travel through the districts of (now) Kaabong, Kotido, Moroto, Nakapiripiri, Napak and Amudet where the Karamojong and neighbouring agro-pastoral groups including the Pokot, Jie and Labwor lived. Cattle raiding (with use of firearms) and conflicts were frequent and could be deadly. On the other hand, I heard stories of Italian priests who lived among the Karamojong, plus stories of a few others. And occasionally my friends and colleagues would relate tales of some adventurous travel, or of tourists that flew up to Kidepo National Park. I never met a single Karamojong back then.

When I started to work in Kaproron, on the lush northern slopes of the extinct volcano of Mount Elgon, and staying in the residence of the local priest, I was able to look over the cliff edge onto the plains where the Karamojong lived. It was here in Kaproron that I heard stories from my colleagues and their families of their land that had been abandoned when the conflict was particularly bad. I learned a bit more about cattle raiding, but all in all, the Karamojong remained a mystery for me.

Photo (above): A view northwards from Kaproron
(Source: Kerstin Danert, 2005)

In the subsequent years, other pastoral groups have fleeted in and out of my circle of attention, including the Maasai with their beautiful blankets, the Fulani with their marvellous hats and the Tuareg wearing exquisite blue. While curiosity was certainly there, my knowledge remained superficial.

It was in 2014, when working in Chad, that my path physically intersected with pastoralists. I was simply in awe as I watched what I later learned was a transhumant family travelling southwards. Asking questions, I was struck by similar, and familiar derogatory language as it was explained that for their entire lives these people travel south and then north again with the movement of the rains. I do not wish to repeat in detail some of the things that I heard. Once again though, I had no interaction with these transhumant people themselves, and was simply left with an uncomfortable feeling – one that I now recognise as my own inner reaction when I am faced with hearing stigma towards others and am at a loss for a response.

Photo (above): Transhumance in Chad
(Soure: Kerstin Danert, 2014)

The discomfort I felt in Uganda, Chad and other places when listening to people talk about pastoralists never really left me. Thus, in 2020, while supporting UNICEF in preparing their Guidance Note on Leaving No One Behind in WASH, I decided to find out more about this group of people and include them in the publication. This turned out to be the start of a journey – a journey that continues. By this time, I had finally knowingly interacted with one single person from Karamoja: a woman police officer working in Kampala. She described the beauty of her home, how she travels back frequently, and how she loves to look at the stars when there. She told me that the conflicts have also eased over the years. I understand that following disarmament in 2001-2008 there was a period of stability, which was disrupted following rearmament in 2019 that degenerated into commercial raiding and involved the army, politicians and business people. You can read more here. Conflict continues with another round of disarmament underway.

In 2022 the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed that 2026 will be the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists (IYRP). You can learn more here in this lovely short animated film. I have to say that the openness of the international communities that concern themselves with the IYRP, and their eagerness to share has been a warm welcome for me into this new world. When I first contacted one of those communities – FAO’s online community on pastoralism – and asked the very naïve question on how to define pastoralism, I was blown away by the many helpful responses from the community. Thank goodness, for I was lost as I tried to understand more in preparing the aforementioned guidance note!

And so, in support of IYRP 2026 and particularly with a view to the linkages with water, this is my first in a series of blogs on pastoralists and water. You are most welcome to join me as I share my own journey of discovery.

Dr Kerstin Danert is a Water Specialist, Researcher and Facilitator and together with Adrian Cullis, co-facilitates the IYRP Pastoralists and Water Working Group.

GLOBAL DRIVERS AND PHENOMENA: ADVANCING GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN WASH

Photo 1. Female Peacekeeper overseeing water supply in Chad. Source: Our Secure Future, accessed October 2024

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

The UN WWDR 2026 shall serve as a vital resource, illustrating how global trends and phenomena are reshaping gender dynamics in societies around the world. The interplay between conflict, migration, and gender equity in WASH reveals stark realities. In regions afflicted by conflict and instability, women’s safety and access to essential services are severely compromised.

A poignant testimony from a woman in Gaza encapsulates this struggle: “We [women] cannot meet our simplest and most basic needs: eating well, drinking safe water, accessing a toilet, having sanitary pads, taking a shower, changing our clothes.”

The plight of women in conflict zones is further exacerbated by migration. Women and girls face an increased risk of sexual and gender-based violence during conflicts. Yet, amid these challenges, women remain indispensable agents of change—actively participating in peace-building, conflict resolution, and post-conflict reconstruction. This resilience highlights the need to recognize and harness women’s potential for positive transformation in their communities.

Migration and its intersection and climate change also alters traditional gender roles and expectations, as families adapt to new environments; it presents opportunities for economic independence and education, empowering them to challenge restrictive gender norms. Still Migrant women often encounter exploitation, discrimination, and limited access to resources, underscoring the urgent need to address these barriers.

Corruption emerges as another formidable barrier to WASH and gender equity. It restricts women’s access to essential services and undermines their participation in leadership and decision-making processes, as demonstrated in weaponisation of water. U.N. Women has called for urgent action to protect Sudanese women and girls, emphasizing the need for accountability in addressing high levels of sexual violence and exploitation. “We cannot let Sudan become a forgotten crisis,” asserts U.N. Women’s Addou, highlighting the critical necessity for action in conflict-affected regions.

On my blog on Diversity in Water sector leadership I emphasise the concerning underrepresentation of women. A World Bank report highlights that less than 18% of the workforce in water utilities are women and that two-thirds of sanitation leaders are white according to a FLUSH LLC publication that I co-authored. This systemic inequity reflects deeper societal structures, suggesting that without diverse leadership, the water sector risks stagnation and failure in meeting SDG6 targets.

THE INTERSECTION OF WASH AND GENDER

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

“Gender equality is a fundamental human right and an obvious question of equity and fairness. But it is also a necessary foundation for sustainable development and a peaceful, prosperous world.”
– Beate Trankmann, UNDP Resident Representative

However, the intersection of WASH reveals profound challenges that hinder the potential of women and girls in achieving equitable and sustainable development, within the realms of WASH. Cecilia Sharp, UNICEF Director of WASH and CEED, explains this by informing that “unsafe water, toilets, and handwashing at home robs girls of their potential, compromises their well-being, and perpetuates cycles of poverty.” She added, “responding to girls’ needs in the design and implementation of WASH programmes is critical to reaching universal access to WASH and achieving gender equality and empowerment.”

Since the emergence of gendered thinking in WASH in 1970s, the dialogue surrounding gender equity has evolved including a dedicated SDG 5 that envisions a world where gender equality is achieved and all women and girls are empowered. It targets the eradication of discrimination and violence against women, child marriage and female genital mutilation, and the recognition of unpaid care work. Furthermore, it emphasizes the necessity for women’s participation in decision-making and access to sexual and reproductive health services.

Yet, five decades later, the promise of transformative models within policies and programs remains nascent. This stagnation raises pressing questions about the efficacy of our current approaches and the urgency of progressive change.

The connection between WASH and gender equity remains tenuous.

This status is explained by the acknowledgement that while the importance of advancing WASH as a means to achieve SDG 5 is increasingly acknowledged in global discourse with even SDG 6.2 explicitly calling for paying special attention to the needs of women and girls, still a glaring omission persists: a lack of commonly agreed-upon indicators for the national and global monitoring of gender within WASH initiatives. This absence underscores a systemic failure that perpetuates gender inequalities, inhibiting the realization of SDG 6 targets.

Water Scarcity and Gender Inequality: Exploring the Hidden Costs of a Thirsty World

The intersection of WASH and gender unveils unique challenges that disproportionately burden women and girls. As demonstrated on Graph 2 below, Research reveals that when water sources are not easily accessible, women and girls aged 15 and older assume the primary responsibility for water collection in 70% of households—an alarming statistic that starkly contrasts with the 30% of households where men share this burden. This reality not only highlights the entrenched gender roles but also raises critical questions about the time and energy expended by women and girls, which could otherwise be invested in education, employment, or health.

Compared to men, women experience many negative WASH-related health outcomes, some of which have been disaggregated. Dr. Maria Neira, Director of the WHO’s Environment, Climate Change, and Health Department, informs, “Women and girls not only face WASH-related infectious diseases, like diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections, they face additional health risks because they are vulnerable to harassment, violence, and injury when they have to go outside the home to haul water or just to use the toilet.” They also account for a higher number of disabilities adjusted life years (DALYs) caused by inadequate hygiene.

Graph 2 Average time spent collecting water by women, girls and boys, by country, selected surveys, 2012-2022 Source UNICEF and WHO, 2023

The gravity of these issues is further compounded by the fact that contaminated drinking water and poor sanitation can have dire consequences for maternal health, including complications during pregnancy and an increased incidence of reproductive tract infections. Despite the wealth of existing studies on health inequities related to WASH, there exists a significant research gap regarding the specific impacts of drinking water access on gender disparities. While some investigations have touched upon the broader issues of water fetching, sanitation, and sexual violence, the social, educational, and economic ramifications of inadequate access to safe drinking water for women remain largely underexplored.

This multifaceted vulnerability contributes to a staggering increase in mortality rates among women and girls.

Brightening the Horizon: Positive Trends in Gender Recognition in WASH Initiatives

“In the landscape of gender recognition, a nuanced narrative unfolds—one that, while acknowledging persistent challenges, also celebrates the transformative strides women are making within the water sector.”

The forthcoming UN WWDR 2026 stands as a beacon of hope, poised to spotlight the remarkable achievements of women in this vital field. By illuminating their contributions and sharing success stories, the report shall aim not just to honour past accomplishments but to ignite inspiration in future generations of women aspiring to carve out their own paths in WASH careers. This acknowledgment is not merely celebratory; it is a critical step toward fostering gender equity in a sector that has historically marginalized female voices.

Each March annually heralds the convening of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (CSW), a platform designed to evaluate the progress made since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Despite the stark realities of slow advancement in gender and WASH, some nations have emerged as exemplars of progress.

Senegal, for instance, has shown remarkable strides between 2015 and 2020, as highlighted in the 2022 SDG Gender Index by Equal Measures 2030. They improved on undernourishment (SDG2) and drinking water (SDG6). The Senegalese government, since adopting the Beijing Declaration, has actively championed gender equality. The introduction of a parity law for elected institutions in 2010 has positioned Senegal as a global leader, boasting one of the highest proportions of women parliamentarians in West Africa. This progressive move places Senegal fourth in Africa concerning gender parity in its legislative assembly. Complementing these efforts, the government has ratified several international conventions to bolster women’s rights and developed a National Strategy for Gender Equity (SNEEG 2016-2026), to ensure equitable participation of both genders in decision-making and access to resources.

Such positive trends in gender recognition in WASH, have spilled into the political arena particularly women’s activism; Hon. Anne Désirée Ouloto—dubbed ‘Maman Bulldozer’ lead transformative efforts in WASH initiatives in Côte d’Ivoire. Presiding over a monumental US$1.2 billion investment in sanitation and drainage in Greater Abidjan, her work exemplifies the profound impact of female leadership in WASH sector.

The landscape of advocacy and legal rights protecting women in WASH is also evolving. In Kenya, alongside legislators and WASH CSOs’, I have led concerted efforts to address the pernicious issue of sextortion in the water sector. Such advocacy is not only a legal necessity but a moral imperative, critical to achieving SDG5 on gender equality and SDG16.6 on accountable governance.

Moreover, Women are not just participating but breaking barriers, challenging norms and stepping into leadership roles, shaping policies, and driving change by making their voice heard. Indonesia’s Retno Marsudi, who serves as the first UN Special Envoy on Water, exemplifies the vital role women play in global discourse on water issues.

EMPOWERING PROGRESS: THE UN WWDR 2026 REPORT ELEVATES GENDER AND WATER DISCOURSE

Featured photo: March 2024, Women in Figuig, Eastern Morocco marching during the biweekly protests against water privatisation. Source AP News.

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

As the waves of time crash upon the shore of progress, a mighty force is rising. These waves carry the strength of female leaders, revolutionising the Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector. To mark another milestone in the pursuit of a sustainable future, the upcoming United Nations World Water Development Report (UN WWDR 2026), will shine a spotlight on a critical yet oft-overlooked aspect of the global water crisis: the inextricable link between gender and water, illuminating a path towards a more sustainable and equitable future. UNWWDR 2026 is not merely an echo of problems, but an inspiring melody of change, empowerment, and sustainable future.

It is not just about women being disproportionately affected by lack of safe WASH access and representation in its management, but it is also about recognising the power of women as managers and catalysts for change in the WASH sector. From the pioneers in Indonesia like Retno Marsudi, UN 1st Special Envoy on Water, the indigenous Mexican women water stewards using ancient techniques passing them down to generations to preserve water in the drought-prone Oaxaca region to the relentless Figuig women of Morocco who marched in protest for several months to amplify water rights voices against water privatization and the ‘humming bird’ Nobel laureate Wangari Maathai from my country Kenya, on water catchment protection efforts, all serve as a powerful reminder that one person can create waves of change.

Water and Economic Poverty: How the Global Water Crisis Disproportionately Affects Women

The global water crisis is a crisis of inequalities disproportionately affecting women.

As we celebrate these and more trailblazing women in water leaders, the world inches closer to the 2030 deadline for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with women still left behind. The United Nations’ Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking Water (GLAAS) 2019 report reveals that a staggering 78% of countries have incorporated specific policies or strategies to promote gender equality in water and sanitation. On the other hand, the International Decade for Action (2018-2028) calls to address gender disparities in WASH access.

Alongside the progress, we also confront persistent gaps. Gaps that threaten to undermine our hard-won achievements, forming a path that recognizes the interconnected nature of WASH-related challenges and the need for inclusive solutions.

Terms like sex and gender may seem straightforward but their nuances hold profound implications for how we perceive and address WASH and gender issues. UNICEF defines Sex as the biological and physical differences between women and men while Gender as socially constructed differences in attributes and opportunities associated with being a woman, man, girl, or boy and to the social interactions and relations between women and men. Woman refers to biological females according to UNOHCR. In my view this affirms the gap in the context of WASH statistics where WASH data is often disaggregated by sex, but rarely disaggregated by gender.

Imagine a world where the simple act of accessing safe WASH does not dictate one’s ability to attend school, earn an income, or live a life free from danger. A world where our mothers, sisters, and daughters are not disproportionately burdened with the responsibility of fetching water, but are empowered managers and change agents in WASH initiatives. For more than two billion people around the globe, particularly women and girls, this is a distant reality. The latest stark metrics reveal a concerning reality: despite progress, millions of women and girls worldwide still lack access to safe WASH services, hindering their empowerment, health, and economic opportunities. This world, although still a distant reality, is one we must strive for, beginning with a deep understanding of the water-gender nexus.

Women are 2.5 times more likely to be responsible for water collection, yet they hold only 17% of the paid jobs in the water sector as confirmed by a Women for Water Partnerships Report. UN Women adds another layer of concern revealing that in 2022 a quarter of women globally lacked access to safely managed drinking water, and two-fifths lacked access to secure sanitation.

The gendered impact of inadequate WASH access is not just a reflection of biological differences, but a manifestation of socially constructed disparities. It serves as a stark reminder that water is not just a women’s issue – it’s a human issue and Graph 1 below illustrates these realities.

Graph 1 Proportion of households in which women, men, girls and boys are primarily responsible for water collection, by country, selected surveys where at least 10% of households collect water, 2012–2022 (%) Source UNICEF and WHO, 2023

UN Water’s dictum concurs and aptly captures that “Water is a human right, not a privilege,” this blog series embodies a bold commitment to upholding the rights of all.

The upcoming UN WWDR for 2026, aims to bridge this chasm by placing gender equity at the heart of WASH management and sustainability discussions. It stands as a pivotal blueprint for understanding the critical nexus between water and gender, presenting an urgent call to action for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders dedicated to fostering an inclusive, equitable, and water-secure world. By weaving together, a rich narrative of data, case studies, and expert insights, the report shall transcend mere enumeration of challenges to celebrate the resilience and ingenuity of women who are at the forefront of change within the WASH sector. It shall compellingly argue that embedding gender equality and social inclusion into water policy and practice is not just a moral imperative but a pragmatic necessity for achieving all SDGs especially SDG 5 and 6. Statistical evidence revealing the extensive failures of undervaluing women’s expertise in WASH management will be juxtaposed with success stories of women-led interventions that have illuminated pathways towards peace, prosperity, and sustainability. As the report critically examines the barriers that women and girls face in accessing safe WASH, it shall highlight the detrimental impacts of gender disparities in decision-making roles, pushing the narrative beyond mere awareness to active transformation. With a focus on fostering gender-responsive approaches in the WASH sector, the UN WWDR 2026 shall serve not only as a repository of insightful analysis but as a clarion call for disruptive change, intended to inspire dialogue and galvanize global commitment towards a future where equitable access to safe WASH is a universal reality.

Sextortion in Kenya: water sector CSOs lead bring down the legislative hammer

Photo 1: Hon.Esther Passaris Tabling the Petition for Amending the Penal Code. Source, Euphresia Luseka

This blog is written by Euphresia Luseka, RWSN Leave No One Behind theme co-lead.

The mood in the room was palpable, Furaha’s eyes were welling up with tears, I felt something rising in my throat. “They threw my water jerrycan away, held me tightly and raped me, taking rounds on me, I screamed but no one heard until I passed out, they then left me for dead and disappeared.” She got consciousness at the hospital.

Strongly appealing to the Government of Kenya Public Petitions Committee at Senate house, Hon.Esther Passaris argued, “Daily, women and girls in Kenya are coerced into sex for basic necessities such as water, employment, education or food. We must redefine sextortion in our laws, providing clear penalties, support systems for victims and measures for accountability to eradicate this blight in our society.”

In many countries, such pervasive incidents are hard to prosecute, partly due to the nature of existing legislation. Nevertheless, activists are relentlessly pressuring authorities by raising awareness on legal protection against sextortion.

Passaris, Women Representative, Nairobi City, has been at the forefront in sextortion solutioning with water sector actors. She tabled to Kenya Parliament a petition for debate; urging amendments to Kenya’s Penal Code to specifically include sextortion as a criminal offense. This legal tool lays details to fight against sexual exploitation in response to instances reported in the Water sector backed by research evidence and increasing lobbying championed by Sareen Malik, Executive Secretary African Civil Society Network for Water and Sanitation (ANEW) and Shivaji Malesi, CEO Kenya Water and Sanitation Network (KEWASNET).

Her petition has gained support from fellow legislators recognising need for stronger legal protection for women and girls.

“It’s a missed opportunity that this was not included in the initial Sexual Offences Bill,” further support came from Member of Parliament (MP) Hon.Jayne Wanjiru, criticising slow progress of protecting women’s integrity in corporate realms.

Sextortion in Kenya Water Sector Hits Tipping Point

Sex is a currency for accessing safe water in Kenya.

World Bank and Kenya Demographic and Health Survey Program confirm 60%-93% of slum households are dependent on informal urban water vendors for their water supply where public utilities fail to deliver. They not only charge high prices, sell low-quality water but also perform unfair water transactions to consumers especially women and girls.

Activists say that this leaves consumers vulnerable to harassment, sexual assault, or abuse. Water fetching is costing time and trauma.

“The tariff is unfair. Most water vendors are male. Sometimes they hike prices intentionally for not submitting to their advances. I am forced to pay more money given the limited options of water sources. They gang up with other men to spank and body shame women who deny them and it’s violating. During overcrowding they rub themselves on us,” Rosemary a Katwekera, Kenya dweller narrates painfully.

Indeed the Water Governance Facility report confirms that women may feel pressured to flirt or ‘play along’ with utility workers out of fear of having their connection cut off.

At a crowded water kiosk at Mukuru Kwa Reuben, Melissa affirms the report’s views, “Water is priceless in the ghetto especially during shortages. It is astonishing to see the lengths residents go to fetch leading to STDs, Early marriages and pregnancies. Even boys are affected. Women contract small boys to help them fetch water and sometimes pay them with sex.” Some would say it is the struggle for survival, but it is a normalization of a vice that is eating up our community.”

The price of a basic human right is high. They demand more than just money.

This is rape.

Photo 2: Consumers at Korogocho slum queue for water, Source, Euphresia Luseka

Naming and Shaming Sextortion to End it

Rebecca Root, IBA Southeast Asia Correspondentexplains that various forms of WASH related violence do exist: (a) Sexual violence (rape, assault, molestation, and inappropriate touching); (b) Psychological violence (harassment, sextortion, eve-baiting (public harassment of women by men), bullying or other actions that may cause fear, stressor shame; (c) Physical violence (beating or fighting leading to injury or death); (d) Sociocultural violence (social ostracism, discrimination, political marginalization or social norms that have negative impacts).

One of the most prevalent and silent forms of Water related violence and corruption is sextortion; defined by International Association of Women Judges as abuse of power to obtain a sexual benefit or advantage.

Malesi, informed “The local term for sextortion is ‘water for water’ which means sex for water. The vendors capitalize on socioeconomic vulnerabilities of women and girls to coerce them into sex for water while some women are forced to seduce vendors into sex for water.”

“It’s prevalent in all sectors, all regions, all countries. It affects women from all backgrounds,” details Marie Chêne, head of research and knowledge at Transparency International. She backs this with statistics from a Transparency International Research confirming in Latin America and the Caribbean, one in five people had either experienced sextortion or heard of someone who had. In Zimbabwe, 57% of women admitted being forced into sexual acts for jobs, medical care or schooling. In Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine, almost half of respondents said sextortion occurs occasionally.

Here in Kenya, over 40% of women have experienced sextortion, finds the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) with Water sector recording an unprecedented number of women reporting being forced to sextortion further affirmed by a KEWASNET study; one out of ten women in Kenya’s informal settlements is a victim of sextortion.

This makes sex the main form of non-monetary bribes in Kenya’s water sector amid a deteriorating economy.

Still there is a Deafening Silence around Sextortion

Research that gathered sextortion voices on water access in Kenya, found out sextortion and sexual harassment was ‘a common phenomenon’ and ‘common knowledge to the residents.’

So why is little or no action taken against it?

Luz Nagle, Scholarship Officer of the IBA Human Rights Law Committee replies, “While many countries have legislation that covers transactional sex or sexual harassment, sextortion is unique in that it’s coercive and involves an abuse of power.” This is why there is still little or no action against it.

Kenya lawyers add the country ranks low on the UN gender inequality index; sextortion is difficult to prosecute as it is undefined in our existing legal framework, women cannot file a complaint and perpetrators cannot be held accountable. Low political will has further frustrated the efforts. Data is scanty with limited research and most victims and survivors do not report cases due to fear of reprisal following disclosure and unawareness on reporting mechanisms.

From personal experience, the fear of reprisal is what stops most people from reporting, there is no incentive for reporting corruption. They taint your image and stigmatise you instead. The justice system is too masculine and very few women leaders support you. Women and the poor suffer most from extortion, they earn the least yet pay the highest percentage of their income in bribes as affirmed by World Bank.

“There’s a lot of shame, social stigma, taboo linked with this kind of offense,” Marie said, adding that in some cases women are forced to marry an abuser or can be fined for adultery.

Measures to bring to light sextortion are desperately important as they are measures to curb the vice. According to Benazir Omotto of Umande Trust and other lobbyists the compounded effects of sex for water need strengthening of the community referral pathways and workplace ethics that links victims and survivors to appropriate support services including legal and financial support. CBOs like Polycom Development Project, Inua dada, Umande Trust have helped in compilation of the women and girls’ narrative as well as providing psycho-social support.

Still, Raising Awareness is not Enough

As Sareen works with water organizations to raise awareness on sextortion, she indicates the lack of belief and resistance to addressing the situation.

“Sextortion is not only happening at the taps but also corporate environments in higher-income contexts. To tackle it, those affected, who are predominantly women, need to be empowered to report incidents, safeguards should be established and perpetrators must be deterred by penalties,” Nagle asserts.

Meaning, dialogue needs to be sustained around this sensitive issue, to find its way into policy, planning and budgeting to ensure that efforts against the vice are sustained.

For this to happen, Countries must treat Sextortion as they would Corruption.

“Corruption takes place because it’s quid pro quo, it’s abuse of power,” Nagle adds, highlighting that the only difference here is that sexual acts are exchanged instead of money.

“Sextortion occurs at the intersection between corruption and sexual exploitation it tends to fall through the cracks and not get addressed by either,” guides Nancy Henry, Senior Advisor, IAWJ.

“When you do not have a name or do not recognize the practice, it is not measured, you do not collect statistics, you do not pass laws or think of strategies to address it including anti-corruption policies so it is invisible,” Marie Chêne, head of research and knowledge, Transparency International.

According to the IBA report ‘Sextortion: A crime of corruption and sexual exploitation’, published in 2020, anti-corruption laws fail to specifically focus on sexual favours and sexual offence laws don’t encompass the corruption component. This means the issue is often dismissed and considered consensual instead.

“Here in Kenya the law does not care because it sees anything other than screaming and fighting as consent,” Millicent a sexual assault survivor told Avaaz.

However, we have progress; the passage of Resolution 10/10 at 10th Conference of States Parties to the UN’s Convention Against Corruption is significant towards recognizing and addressing sexual corruption, including sextortion. It calls on states to raise awareness about the issue and take measures to prevent and prosecute sexual corruption effectively. It is a positive development that can help drive change and accountability in addressing sextortion at a global level. The Water Governance Facility offers a course on water integrity and gender covering sextortion to support authorities including judiciary with knowledge.

Victims petition Kenya legislators to change Law to provide penalties for Sextortion

Photo 3: Malesi making remarks during petitions handover, Source, Euphresia Luseka

Meanwhile, there are ongoing efforts to criminalise sextortion in other ways in Kenya. The Attorney General is under pressure for a bespoke legislation at national level that offers ‘clarity and consistency in defining sextortion and applicable sanctions, according to underlying requirements of the rule of law.

Sustaining the petition, MP Hon.Beatrice Elachi demanded broader implications of the amendment, “Sextortion challenges demand integrating changes across all relevant legislation to end the expectation of sexual favours for professional or personal advancement.”

“Sextortion is a significant infringement of human rights and obstacle to attaining SDG5 on gender equality, and SDG16.6 on accountable governance. By the end of 2024 we aim to have sextortion to be punishable by law in the penal code” Passaris said.

The petition has proposed amendments to the Penal Code, Section 4 and 146, CAP 63, 2024 of the Sexual Offences Act and any other relevant criminal laws.

“Sometimes it is men in positions of power harassing women and sometimes it is women harassing men, all gender need to fight sextortion,” said Hon. Caroli Omondi who took part in drafting the amendments.

This sextortion legal framework will enable adequate prosecution of sextortion cases, raise awareness, strengthen level of women’s participation and involvement in water decision-making structures; providing safe confidential and gender sensitive reporting mechanism that gives victims/survivors access to appropriate support to resources needed as well as empowering women and girls promoting a more just and equitable society for all.

African children submit demands to governments to be first and fast to firm up climate change action in the water sector

Feature image: Ajoh Majur, 12, uses her body weight to activate a handpump. South Sudan, Photo Credit: Lynsey Addario

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, RWSN Leave No-one Behind Theame Leader

The SDG’s commitment to ‘Leave No One Behind’ means acceleration efforts must focus on reaching the most vulnerable groups; this includes children.

African children are born and grow in the climate crisis.

“Present and future generations of children will bear the brunt of the intensifying effects of the climate crisis throughout their lifetime, these impacts are already occurring,” said UNICEF.

UNICEF estimates that one billion children globally are at “extremely high” risk of suffering from impacts of the climate crisis. The need for action has never been more urgent. The climate crisis is a children’s rights crisis.

Since the adoption of the United Nations Convention on Rights of the Child (UNCRC) in 1989, unprecedented gains have been made for children. However, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), Special Report on Global Warming warns the progress risks undermining the escalating climate crisis, which poses an acute threat to children’s survival, development and well-being.

Short-term Thinking as a Triple Threat of Water-Related Crisis is Endangering the Lives of Africa’s Children

On August 2023, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child affirmed children’s right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment under General Comment No. 26. During the 2023 Human Rights Council the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Mr.Volker Türk, deplored that despite all the alarm bells going off, leaders were still not acting with the determination required and getting “stuck in the short term”.

“If this is not a human rights issue, what is?”, he asked.

Africa is facing a water catastrophe. While the climate and water-related shocks are escalating globally, the risks compound most for children in Africa; 40% of Africa’s population was under 15 years old in 2022. Children in 98 percent of African countries are at the highest risk from a convergence of three water-related threats: Inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene; Its related diseases; and Climate hazards. This is most acute in the Central African Republic, Chad, Nigeria, Guinea, Somalia, and Guinea-Bissau making West and Central Africa one of the world’s most water-insecure and climate-impacted regions.

Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems (3/3)

If the water sector is going to attain safe water for all then it should deliberately make efforts to move from pilots and projects to systems change and to scale and move from policy development to policy implementation. Potentially innovative finance should focus on funding rural water solutions in an environment with strong institutional frameworks to attain sustainable impact. Building upon the insights of the previous blog under the same title “Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems”, this blog explores the institutional reforms driving a resilient rural water sector. Learn about the significance of Kakamega County Rural Water and Sanitation Corporation (KACRWASCO) activities and other key strategies for achieving scale and long-term sustainability in rural water service provision.

Kakamega County Government Scales Sustainable Rural Water Service Delivery Models

If the water sector is going to attain safe water for all then it should deliberately make efforts move from pilots and projects to systems change and to scale and move from policy development to policy implementation.

In spite of significant investments in Kakamega County’s Rural water supply over the past years, that brought improved access rates, still the water service levels was a big challenge in the Year 2016. Two main challenges existed: (1) Inadequate deteriorating sources and dilapidated infrastructure to meet the demand of the increasing population and (2) Weak institutional capacity to manage the facilities viably.

According to the Kakamega County Water Supply and Urban Sewerage Strategic Plan, (2015-2019) the functionality rates in the county were un-known however 61% of the residents (urban and rural) used improved water sources. Rural water coverage was at 30% according to the Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) reports. This meant that 70% of the rural population probably had access to un-improved sources attributing to the county’s slow pace in attaining Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6) then. Despite the existence of the rural water supplies, almost 59% of the functional ones did not perform as per set standards due to lack of professional management.

Some of the institutional arrangements for rural water service delivery were in place however there was need to review the existing ones, to be in tandem with the current water sector devolution dispensation. Using a systemic approach lens it was widely concurred that the technical aspects were not the main constraint to improved water service delivery access rather weak management. Therefore, Sustainable Service Delivery Models emerged as one of the most critical areas to improve in order to respond to the county’s water crisis.

Establishing an Institutional Framework for Resilient Rural Water Management

The Constitution of Kenya 2010 (CoK) Article 43 recognizes that access to safe and sufficient water is a basic human right and assigns under the 4th Schedule the responsibility for water provision and resources management to the county governments in pursuant to article 185 (2), 186 (1) and 187 (2) of the County Governments Act 2012. Further, article 174 (f) of the Constitution provides that one of the objects of devolution is to promote social and economic development and the provision of easily accessible services throughout Kenya. The Water Act 2016 affirms this alongside the National Water Policy 2021 that was being drafted then with clauses on retaining cost recovery principles and ring fencing of the water sector revenue to ensure sustainability. However, the institutional framework for managing the water services delivery in rural areas was still unclear.

Focus on SDMs was fundamental to improving rural water supply sustainability and service levels as it focuses on long-term provision of water services at scale as opposed to the existing discrete one-off community projects. Therefore, a critical determinant of devolution success in Kenya’s Water sector will be how timely the county governments develop and manage resilient systems that are responsive and accountable to public needs. However, Kakamega County still lacked the overall capacity to develop and implement effective institutional framework for SDMs.

The impetus for implementing and scaling promising alternative Service Delivery Management Models from Organisations like SNV was eminent but Scale and Speed proved necessary towards Resilient Rural Water Supplies.

To address these challenges for long term sustainability, from a Systems approach it was imperative that not only should the Service Delivery Management Models be developed but they be anchored on an institutional framework. The USAID KIWASH Project WASH Governance interventions also entailed supporting County Governments systematically improve rural water service delivery through stimulating local government support and political commitment, budget allocations and financing for WASH. Subsequently, the Project’s activities in Kakamega county ambitiously aimed at supporting its County Government establish a legal County Rural Water Service Provider.

The Approach and Process

Section 93 (1), (2) and (3) of the Water Act 2016 provides for Water Service Providers and County Governments to establish different water services delivery options. The County Executive Committee Member (CEC) in-charge of Kakamega Water Department directed adoption of Service Delivery Management options after a situational analysis report by USAID-KIWASH Project on status of targeted rural water supplies including a market research, willingness and ability to pay for water services and commercial viability. This was done concurrently with exchange visits to successful peer WSPs under various SDMs including Nakuru Rural Water and Sanitation Co. and Tachasis Water and Sanitation Company as part of lobbying and awareness creation for legislators to support the process.

Public Consultations and Handover of rural water projects:

The Water Act 2016, section 139 (1)-(6) requires a public consultation on intent to improve water services provision through SDMs. The CECM through the Kakamega County Assembly Legislators on the Water and Environment Committee held 12 public participation exercises across all the sub-counties and entered into negotiations and agreements with asset owners towards establishing a rural water services provider to manage rural service provision affirmed by Section 94 (2)(3).

The CECM with advice from director water services commissioned handing-over of targeted rural water supplies upon a situational assessment, viability analysis and agreed service delivery option. The director of water services provided a comprehensive inventory of all assets and liabilities: human resources, entire infrastructure (hardware and software) customer inventories, cash and bank balances and project history; all the assets and liabilities were evaluated at current values. Handing over tools included earlier registration documents, the deed of hand-over/surrender and Water services regulations.

Management Contracting, Licensing and Operationalisation:

The management model adopted was the Rural Water Service Provider as illustrated in Figure 2 below; the unserved area was large it was necessary to have an entity the county will ensure the right to water is met for the rural communities. USAID-KIWASH Project supported Kakamega County Department of Water to follow due process in forming the Rural WSP with institutional setup, planning and investments and monitoring and evaluation activities. This was important since Section 104 of the County Government Act provides that these plans shall be the basis for all budgeting and spending in the county. No public funds shall be appropriated without a planning framework developed by the county executive committee and approved by the county assembly. In consultation with WASREB Kakamega County Department of Water ensured that they meet all the requirements set out under section 77 (2), (3) and (4) of the Water Act 2016. The Kakamega County Rural Water and Sanitation Corporation Bill 2019 was developed and Kakamega County Rural Water Co (KACRWASCO) was registered as a rural water service provider as a public limited liability company and applied for a license including a proposed tariff from the national regulator (WASREB) to ensure compliance with requirements to keep them accountable and viable in their service provision area. Procedurally a new Management, Board of Directors and staff were acquired. Formation of County Rural WSP.

Figure 2 Illustrating SDM for Formation of County Rural WSP

Investment Planning, Financing and Coordination

Kakamega County Department of Water alongside USAID-KIWASH Project kicked off the process of development of operational policies and plans (County Water Strategies, Water Master Plans, Policies, Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks, Procurement Guidelines, Consumer Engagement Strategy and CIDP) in accordance to Water Act,2016 Section 94. Additionally, Kakamega County Government allocated targeted subsidy to enable KACRWASCO to meet operation and maintenance costs and increase coverage to rural areas. They also partnered with various Organisations including the Private sector through Acacia Mining on a tripartite agreement to serve 15,000 people and DANCO on leasing of equipment including metres and HDPE pipes and state corporations including Water Sector Trust Fund and Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) on financing water infrastructure like tanks, water kiosks and so on . Pursuant to section 94(3) of the Water Act 2016, the County Governments should develop water infrastructure which may be managed a WSPs. Subsequently the county government have invested US$3Million in both urban and rural water sector between 2016-2021.

KACRWASCO ring fences revenues to meet operational and maintenance costs and undertake service expansion against approved annual investment plans and budgets. National and County Government entities, departments, agencies coordinate in the development and provision of rural water services in the County through them. Non state entities consult and coordinate with KACRWASCO through County Government regarding development and provision of rural water services in the County.

Performance Monitoring and Reporting

KACRWASCO continues to ensure they provide accurate and verified monitoring and evaluation key performance data as set out by WASREB. The County Government sits in the BOD and inspects and monitor elements of water services delivery from the monthly status reports to undertake appropriate remedial measures to ensure effective service delivery.

Moving Forward

The activities towards the establishment of KARWASCO resulted to increased Kakamega County’s rural water coverage from 30% to 57% between 2016-2021 with over 569,600 people accessing safely managed drinking water services and an additional 271,984 accessing basic drinking water services. County investments in the WASH sector were at US$26Million during the Financial Year 2016-2022.

When governments deliver services as per the needs of the people they serve, they can increase public satisfaction and reduce costs. New thinking is needed to deliver the benefits of rural water infrastructure investments to eliminate waste given the dwindling water sector funding. Cognizant of the essential central role that rural water supply systems play towards the progressive realization of the right to water and improving livelihoods to alleviate poverty amid limited Water sector funding, it is imperative that professionalization in management of these systems is adopted at scale with speed. Kakamega’s unfunctional rural water projects successfully increased their integration into formal markets, with closer relationships to WSPs like KACWASCO, counties and institutional actors.

Rural Water Sector Funding had consistently lagged investment needs to address system issues; however, when investment was directed towards well-executed projects that improved outcomes for the network crowding in by market actors increased. Better procurement and vendor contracting were two of the primary mid-term levers that supported small capital-expenditure projects make more efficient use of capital that improved water coverage.

WASH sector coordination through the Multistakeholder Kakamega County WASH Forum supported acquisition and equitable allocation of additional investments from the private sector, recoverable grants, growth in WSP revenues and 36 percent increase in county investments in WASH sector. The forum also supported lobbying and advocacy activities on citizen Right to Water and responsibility of both levels of government in ensuring they have access to safe water. They demanded their rights during 2017 national elections campaigns pushing politicians to include access to safe water in their manifestos that support measure their performance. After attending a social accountability briefing session on attaining SDG6 in Kakamega County organised by USAID-KIWASH Project in partnership with the Kakamega County DWENR the County coined a Clarion Call Amatsi Khumukuru a word in Luhya dialect meaning Water At The Doorstep. Such strong political will supported increase finance and equitable budget allocation for the water sector

Using a citizen-centric approach to delivering government services was helpful in creating ownership of processes and consumers taking responsibility in giving service feedback, paying water bills, reporting leaks, bursts, vandalism. WASREB has begun the process of disseminating the official guidelines for provision of water services in rural and underserved areas in Kenya. This marks WASREB’s first venture into regulation of services in the rural sector, it will significantly increase the uptake of the SDMs, establishing them as the first official guidance of formalizing water services provision in rural areas.

In closing this blog series, the significance of strong political and administrative governance, transformative partnerships, and adaptive strategies shines through in building a resilient rural water sector. Prioritizing safe water access for all and fostering collaboration pave the way for a sustainable water future, fostering prosperity and inclusivity. Thank you for joining this enlightening journey.

About the author:

Euphresia Luseka is a Water Governance Specialist and Co-Lead of RWSN Leave No-One Behind Theme. She is a seasoned Expert with experience in leadership, strategy development, partnerships and management in WASH sector nationally, regionally and internationally. She has specialised in WASH Public Policy, Business Development Support Strategies and Institutional Strengthening of urban and rural WASH Institutions. Euphresia has several publications and research work in her field.