Sustainable Groundwater Development – Rural Water Supply Network

Lessons from the RWSN webinars

Guest blog by Rebecca Laes-Kushner. Featured photo from RWSN webinar presentation on 29.4.25 (What Drives the Performance of Rural Piped Water Supply Facilities?) by Babacar Gueye from GRET Senegal.

Professionalism. Standards. Systems. These themes are repeated throughout Rural Water Supply Network’s (RWSN) spring and fall 2025 webinar series.

Given the large percentage of boreholes with early failure – within one to two years – improvements in standards and professionalism in borehole drilling are necessary. Drilling association leaders spoke passionately about the need for borehole drillers to professionalize to improve the quality of boreholes, increase accountability, stop illegal drilling and enhance community buy-in, which occurs when standards are enforced and certified materials are used.

George k’Ouma, from the Small Scale Drillers Association of Kenya, said it best: Professionalism isn’t optional.

A tidbit: Small borehole drillers have an advantage over large operations because they have knowledge of the local geology and seasonal changes, which enables better planning and materials selection.

Another area in need of increased professionalism is water management. Professor Kwabena Nyarko, from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi (KNUST), conducted a study comparing public sector, private sector and community water management in Ghana. Model type was less important than having professional standards and following best practices, including metering, tariffs that covered maintenance costs, efficient collection of tariffs, audits and reporting, digital recordkeeping and training, as well as financial support.

Jose Kobashikawa, head of the Enforcement Directorate for Sunass, the regulatory body for drinking water and sanitation services in Peru, echoed these concepts in his presentation. SUNASS uses a benchmarking tool to evaluate rural providers. Metrics include formality and management (are they registered, do they have a water use license), financial sustainability (do they collect tariffs, what percent of customers are defaulters), and quality of services (is water chlorinated and daily hours of water supply). High performing providers are awarded certificates recognizing their good practices in public management and workshops are held in each region to disseminate best practices.

Focusing on systems is another thread that runs through the varied webinar topics. Systems thinking means designing a scheme for the long-term provision of water. Boreholes must be properly sited. Appropriate materials, such as high quality stainless steel (304/316), need to be selected in order to prevent corrosion, as RWSN’s Stop the Rot initiative details. Handpumps often corrode within months or years instead of lasting a decade. Ayebale Ared, Technical and Social Expert at Welthungerhilfe, shared Uganda’s systemic solution: in 2016 the country banned the use of galvanized iron (GI) risers and rods in all new and rehabilitated handpumps – the first sub-Saharan country to do so. Uganda also requires a water quality analysis be done before materials are selected.

In addition, data collection and use must be embedded in all stages and aspects of water projects.. Dr. Callist Tindimugaya, Commissioner for Water Resources Planning and Regulation in Uganda, collects data from drillers which he then turns into groundwater maps the drillers can then use.

Systems thinking also means including the needs of the entire population in the design, especially women, who bear the burden of hauling and carrying water. Women – who are killed by crocodiles while washing clothes in rivers, whose skin is irritated by harsh detergents, who find leaning over low wash basins harder as they age, who need to wash bloody clothes and bedsheets separately from the family’s regular laundry when they menstruate. Laundry is barely mentioned in WASH circles but RWSN devoted an entire webinar to the topic. One speaker questioned how the WASH sector would be different if the metric for success was the amount of time women spend collecting water.

Understanding the local culture is critical; psychologists, behaviorists and sociologists can help provide insights. Technical solutions which aren’t accepted by the community will only lead to failure.

The lack of funds to cover maintenance work on wells is well known. Systems thinking means anticipating root causes of funding issues in a community and pre-emptively building a system that attempts to solve those issues. Tariffs are too low to cover maintenance? Then the project needs to determine how sufficient funds will be raised, whether through higher water fees (that may be less affordable to low-income families) or from external sources. The water committee is inefficient at collecting funds? Then training and capacity building need to be part of the project design from the beginning.

Looking at the bigger picture helps creative ideas flourish: Household rainwater harvesting, replenishing water aquifers through tube recharging, deep bed farming that breaks up the hard pan so water can return to the aquifer, sand dams that filter water and incorporating water management and regreening in the design and construction of roads so crops can grow next to roads. During the laundry webinar, three organizations presented their laundry solutions – devices that save women time, eliminate much of the manual labor, use less water and even offer income-generating opportunities.

The webinars are at times frustrating because we clearly know what needs to be done – yet professionalism, systems thinking and best practices are not always prevalent. More often, though, the webinars are full of insightful information and inspiring stores from experts. The knowledgeable participants, who ask focused, detailed questions, enhance the experience. I look forward to the spring 2026 webinars which are currently being planned.

Rebecca Laes-Kushner is a consultant to NGOs and companies with a social mission, with a particular focus on development issues such as WASH, climate change, supporting SMEs, health care and nutrition. Laes-Kushner Consulting (https://laeskushner.net/) provides research and writing, data analysis, M&E and training services. Rebecca has a Master’s in Public Administration (USA) and a Certificate of Advanced Studies in Development and Cooperation from ETH NADEL in Switzerland.

From overseeing drilling operations to supervising them for the client: field realities from Uganda

By Ayebale Ared (Welthungerhilfe)

With this blog, I would like to share a few short reflections from my experiences overseeing and supervising drilling activities over the past ten years, both from the contractor’s and the INGO/client’s perspectives.

Figure 1: Ayebale Ared on the field (Welthungerhilfe)

From the drilling contractor’s side – overseeing drilling operations

I was fortunate to work with a drilling firm that prioritized quality, accountability, and training. The work culture encouraged flexibility, allowing us to try out different drilling methodologies. One of the most valuable aspects was the emphasis on real-time logging and decision-making based on live site observations. As the overseer of the drilling operations, I had to be physically present in the field, equipped with a laptop, drilling logs, a handheld GPS, a tape measure, a V-notch Weir, a dip meter, an E.C & a pH meter, and a camera, to support real time supervision and technical decisions as drilling progressed.

There was no remote oversight; everything was site-based and collaborative. Communication within the team was strong both for daily updates and for collectively addressing any issues that had financial or technical implications.

**Figure 2 (above) Sample box containing drill cuttings** (Source: Ayebale Ared)

However, there were limitations.

At the time, our machinery could not compete for larger contracts, particularly those requiring the drilling of production boreholes with casing diameters larger than 5″ internal diameter (ID). While we successfully drilled several open-hole design boreholes, which are suitable for handpumps these cannot be upgraded to accommodate technologies such as solar-powered water systems (SPWS) due to initial design constraints.

**Figure 3 (above) Water Sampling during borehole development showing decreasing turbidity** (Source: Ayebale Ared)

From the Client’s Side (INGO) – supervising drilling

Switching to the client’s side offered me the opportunity to work with a range of drilling firms year after year. By then, I had completed the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) Professional Drilling and Borehole Management course (2019), and I was actively applying the knowledge in the field. I have worked with drillers with different equipment, resulting in more efficient drilling, constructing cased, rather than open holes. I also have had the chance to mentor and train new supervisors in professional supervision practices, proper borehole logging, and how to make sound real-time decisions at the site.

However, not all experiences have been positive

Remote, or part time supervision is common with a bigger percentage of the drilling firms I have worked with, often resulting in decisions made by drillers to minimize cost rather than address real-time field conditions which are not supervised in the field by the client. Some drilling firms opt for untrained, inexpensive overseers, which undermines the quality of work. As an example, many have no idea what real time logging is but just write a number of pipes and send short video clips to their bosses in office who make remote decisions. This usually becomes a challenge with the client’s supervisor ends up being painted bad as “a bad guy”. Without a qualified client supervisor on-site, the narrative of events can shift dramatically. I’ve observed poor siting practices, with boreholes positioned near anthills or trees leading to complex drilling challenges and post-installation issues such as silting, root intrusion, and compromised water quality. This has been subsequently verified through borehole video inspections and microbial tests. Additionally, poor gravel packing techniques have led to bridging, and inadequate borehole development has left screens poorly cleaned and functioning below standard.

**Figure 4 (above) Measuring drill pipe lengths (Source: Ayebale Ared)**

These reflections underline the critical importance of professional supervision, well-trained personnel, good oversight by the drilling contractor, and appropriate on-site decision-making throughout the drilling process.

I hope these insights are helpful as we continue to improve and uphold quality in our water supply interventions.

Ayebale Ared has over 10 years of experience in the water sector, specializing in WASH programs, borehole drilling, and rehabilitation in Uganda. He has worked on both the contractor and client sides, gaining a well-rounded perspective on best and worst drilling supervision experiences and practices

Getting infrastructure quality right from the outset – a series of checklists for WASH Funders (and Grantees)

Dr Kerstin Danert, Ask for Water Ltd, Edinburgh, Scotland

High-quality infrastructure design and construction is not the only important concern in relation to rural water supply services, but provides a solid basis. Poor quality infrastructure jeopardises everything that follows – including it the maintenance, and management of the service, and even being able to collect user fees.

There are many reasons why infrastructure ends up not meeting the standards needed. And for the last two decades, the Rural Supply Network (RWSN) has emphasised ensuring that boreholes are properly drilled and completed – with a range of guidance and training materials now widely available – and (I am pleased to know) used!

However, we were mainly writing (or making short films) for people that are implementing projects. With the most recent publication we are addressing a different audience – FUNDERS OF WATER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE. You may ask yourself why?

Unfortunately, not all funding agencies have the policies in place, nor the checks and balances that consistently foster high-quality infrastructure – whether initial construction and installation, or rehabilitation. And to make matters worse, well-intentioned policies can actually have negative unintended consequences. Low-per capita investment costs are a case in point – they can be set too low.

At the end of 2024, RWSN published the WASH Funders Infrastructure Checklists: Boreholes and Handpumps. They start off by recognising that when it comes to infrastructure quality, a number of things can go wrong. Grantees may simply not have the procedures in place, or the capacity to consistently ensure quality or they may not follow suitable contracting procedures. National standards may be lacking, or grantees may cut corners in order to meet Funder requests for an (unrealistic) low budget or fast schedules.

We have developed a series of four checklists – each providing guidance for WASH funders, whether financing direct implementation or systems strengthening activities. We have tried to make the checklists accessible even for those without a detailed knowledge of groundwater, drilling or handpumps. Each checklist is intended to help funders to reflect on their policies and procedures and/or those followed by the respective grantees.

Please take a look – and do get back to us through ask@ask-for-water.ch with comments feedback. We would like to keep improving this guidance in the future!

The WASH Funders Checklists were developed under the RWSN Initiative Stop the Rot.

Functionality of water supply handpumps in Cameroon (Central Africa): a review of data from 310 councils

Handpumps have revolutionized access to safe and reliable water supplies in Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in rural areas. They constitute a healthy and viable alternative solution when surface water is contaminated. Danert (2022) estimates that 200 million people in sub-Saharan depend on 700,000 handpumps to supply themselves with drinking water.

Unfortunately, many handpumps service face performance issues or premature failure due to technical or installation defects in the borehole or pump, operational and maintenance weaknesses, or financial constraints (World Bank, 2024). Statistics on the functionality of handpumps in Cameroon are very sparse and dispersed with very little data available. However, some studies show that 25% to 32% of handpumps in Cameroon are inoperative (RWSN, 2009; Foster et al., 2019).

Previous reviews of handpumps functionality data in Cameroon have been conducted, including RWSN (2009) and Foster et al. (2019). However, these estimations were based on partial data and thus may not reflect the situation in the country as a whole. In addition, the number of handpumps installed each year is constantly increasing, and there is a need to update functionality data. Thus the interest of the study.

The methodological approach used in this study was based on online searches. To do so, we searched, collected, and analyzed relevant data from the 310 Councils Development Plan (CDP) that had been collected from 2010 to 2022. Information sources included data sets and documents available online through the data portals of the National Community-Driven Development Program (PNDP).

Overall, based on the data analysed, the number of handpumps used as the main source of drinking water supply in Cameroon is 20,572, of which 9,113 are installed in modern wells and 11,459 in boreholes. Approximately 8.2 million people in Cameroon rely on a handpump for their main drinking water supply, which is equivalent to 36.8% of the population of Cameroon. Findings indicates that one in three handpumps in Cameroon is non-functional, which in 2022 was roughly equivalent to 6,724 inoperative water points. To put this in perspective, this number is about 33% of the total number of handpumps, enough to supply 2.7 million people, assuming 400 inhabitants per handpumps. According to this estimate, it is about 44.8 billion CFA francs, or 66.8 million USD, was invested in the construction of water points that are immobilized and do not generate any benefit (improved health, nutrition, or education).

Figure 1 presents estimations of non-functionality in the ten regions of Cameroon. This figure shows that the region that had the highest level of non-functional handpumps is the Adamawa region (43%), followed by the East region (39%), the Littoral (37%), the North (35%), the South (35%), the West (32%), the South West (31%), the Center (30%), the North West (30%), and the Far North (28%).

Figure 1 | Handpump functionality rate for Cameroon

The handpumps, like the Community Based Management, seem not to have given the expected results. The fact that some handpumps fail prematurely seems to indicate that technical defects (poor quality components and rapid corrosion) contribute to handpump failure and underperformance. Further, this review notes that questions related to the quality of handpump material and the corrosion of handpumps have not been sufficiently taken into account in the various research studies in Cameroon and Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, Future research should focus on physical audits of handpumps, and handpump rehabilitation campaigns in order to shed light on these issues. Finally, preventing rapid corrosion of handpumps through regulations should be implemented in order to improve the performance of handpumps. Regulations may be implemented at the national, regional, or local levels, and it is advised to employ a pH threshold of less than 6.5 as a corrosion risk indication. Once they are more precisely defined, additional risk factors such as salinity, chloride, and sulphate levels can be added.

About the author:

Victor Dang Mvongo, MSc is a PhD Student at the University of Dschang (Cameroon) and an independent consultant in WASH. He conducted the work featured in this blog at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences.

Further reading:

Mvongo D.V, Defo C (2024) Functionality of water supply handpumps in Cameroon (Central Africa). Journal of water, sanitation and Hygiene for development. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.085

References:

Danert, K. (2022) Halte aux dégradations Rapport I : Fiabilité, fonctionnalité et défaillance technique des pompes à motricité humaine. Recherche-action sur la corrosion et la qualité des composants des pompes à motricité humaine en Afrique subsaharienne. Ask for Water GmbH, Skat Foundation et RWSN, St Gallen, Suisse.

Foster, T., Furey, S., Banks, B. & Willets, J. 2019 Functionality of handpump water supplies: a review of data from sub-Saharan Africa and the Asia-Pacific region. International Journal of Water Resources Development 36 (5): 855–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2018.1543117

RWSN 2009 Handpump data, selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa. RWSN, St Gallen, Suisse. https://www.ruralwater-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/203.pdf

Stop the Rot: Uganda

Documentation of Experiences and Lessons Learnt in the prevention of Rapid Handpump Corrosion in Uganda

Report by Kerstin Danert, Paul Bisoborwa, Erisa Kyeyune, Robert Mutiibwa and Loretta Nakayima

The full report is available here.

About 67% of the population of rural Uganda rely on a handpump, and, according to the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) database, the country currently has an asset base of over 63,000 handpumps. While there is a policy shift towards piped supplies (including using solar-driven pumps), handpumps will remain important in providing water to Uganda’s rural population for the foreseeable future. The U2 and U3 (known elsewhere as the India Mark II and Mark III), as well as the Uganda 3 Modified Pump (U3M) are the standardised pumps used in the country.

The rapid corrosion of submerged handpump riser pipes and rods has been well documented in Uganda, with over a dozen reports, and studies, including academic publications on the subject. When handpumps corrode, the red, badly-tasting water of the supply is often rejected and sources abandoned, with users returning to more distant and contaminated supplies. Rapid corrosion also leads to premature failure of the supply as riser pipes leak or even break completely. It is widely accepted that galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes and rods corrode in aggressive groundwater where pH levels are low (<6.5). High levels of salinity and high chloride concentrations are also highly corrosive.

In recognition of the widespread corrosion problem in Uganda, in 2016 MWE issued a letter suspending the use of galvanised iron riser pipes. Despite the fact that rapid corrosion is a problem in at least 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (plus Sudan), Uganda is one of the very few countries to have taken affirmative action to address the issue.

This short study, funded by The Waterloo Foundation, set out to document Uganda’s experience and lessons learnt in preventing rapid corrosion. It is intended to provide insights and recommendations for Uganda and other countries. The in-country study was undertaken in October/November 2023, and comprised interviews with 55 stakeholders from government, suppliers, NGOs, drillers and handpump mechanics as well as a review of select documentation and analysis of quantitative data collected in 16 districts by the NGO Water for People. As well as discussing with stakeholders based in Kampala, the study involved visits to Mityana, Kibaale, Kyegegwa, Mubende, Kamwenge and Masindi Districts, including some observations of components and handpump removal.

The study has found qualitative evidence that the suspension of use of GI pipes on handpump installations in Uganda has had an overall positive effect on reducing the phenomenon of handpump corrosion in the country. It took a few years for stakeholders to adjust to the suspension, including availing alternative materials and determining which grades of stainless steel to be used. In the early years, there were issues of availability and supply of alternatives, gaps in information among some stakeholders alongside cost concerns. Initially, some organisations installed grade 202 stainless steel, which was also found to corrode rapidly. In addition to stainless steel pipes, uPVC (with uPVC connectors) and uPVC pipes with stainless steel connectors are used.

While most stakeholders seem to be aware of the suspension of GI riser pipes and rods, this does not seem to be fully adhered to, with some district local governments, NGOs and communities apparently still installing GI on new installations or for replacements. The study witnessed “mixed” installations comprising GI, and stainless steel (which also sometimes appeared to comprise different grades). Such installations risk creating problems through galvanic corrosion, a phenomenon whereby dissimilar metals submerged in water increase corrosion.

The study concludes with a number of recommendations as summarised below:

Studies and research

Explore reasons why some stakeholders are not adhering to the suspension of GI riser pipes and pump rods and how to effectively overcome these barriers.
Undertake analysis of quantitative data including MWE Management Information System (MIS) data on shallow wells and boreholes (including their functionality status/due for decommissioning). Quantify the extent to which handpumps with corroding GI components have been replaced in the country, and also estimate the cost and human capacity implications of replacing poorly functioning or abandoned sources as a result of corrosion.
Monitor installations to determine if there are any problems with corrosion of the water tank and cylinder when connected to a stainless steel pipe as a result of galvanic corrosion or poor installation, and consider checking for the release of contaminants, including lead.
Clarify maximum installation depths for alternative materials through testing, and communicate this clearly to all stakeholders through written guidance (discussed below).
Developa short document (and film) on what users can measure and inspect directly. This could support stakeholders in assuring quality.
Undertake further research on the relationships between pH, salinity, other water quality parameters and the quality of the galvanising (particularly the thickness of the galvanising).
Explore alternatives to the nationwide suspension of GI, such as lifting the suspension locally based on very clear, scientifically robust criteria in relation to pH and salinity.
The appropriateness of the discontinuation of funding for shallow wells should be further studied and reviewed for appropriateness.

Recommended actions for Uganda

Support quality assurance efforts by updating the Uganda Standard Specifications for the India Mark deepwell and shallow well handpumps, referred to in Uganda as the U2 and U3 pumps.
Develop a certification mechanism for the suppliers of handpumps/components to ensure quality and include labelling requirements to help consumers identify appropriate parts.
Raise awareness and improve knowledge of (i) the GI suspension, and the rationale behind it, (ii) how to determine whether iron in water is naturally occurring or caused by corrosion, (iii) appropriate alternatives (iv) key issues with respect to grades of stainless steel and depth limitations and (v) identifying appropriate parts. Written guidance should be provided.
Provide training for handpump mechanics and handpump installers across the country on the correct handling of the uPVC and stainless-steel alternatives currently available on the market in Uganda, and ensure that they have the appropriate toolkits to handle these materials.
Incorporate inspection of handpump component quality and installation in post-construction monitoring by government, NGOs, the Uganda Drilling Contractors Association (UDCA) and funding agencies.
Continue to engage with and support innovations such as the Handpump Improvement Project.
MWE, in collaboration with NGOs and District Local Governments should find ways of supporting poor and vulnerable communities with ongoing corrosion problems to replace GI pipes and rods.

Lessons for other countries

Based on the experiences of Uganda, key lessons for other countries that are considering taking affirmative action to address rapid handpump corrosion are:

Undertake an in-country study to document the extent of the problem and any efforts that may have been undertaken to address it in the past. If rapid handpump corrosion is found to be a widespread problem in the country, and is related to GI installed in aggressive groundwater, consider suspending the use of GI – carefully considering the pros and cons of a nationwide or more localised suspension as well as the feasibility of using alternative parts.
Prior to any suspension, undertake extensive and transparent stakeholder consultation, taking on board concerns and developing a suitable timeline. Provide user-friendly guidance on alternative materials and their handling. In advance of any suspension, ensure that all stakeholders are informed of it, and are made aware of any implications for programmes and budgets.
Government should either refer to suitable international standard specifications, update national standard specifications or (as an interim measure) provide clear guidance regarding alternative materials, components and dimensioning that should be used. Evaluation is needed to ensure that materials are safe for contact with drinking water. Guidance should include information on depth limitations and material handling.
Document the process of suspension, and monitor adherence, as well as challenges faced by organisations and communities, and consider how to adapt programmes and policies to enable changes to be effective.
Ensure that handpump mechanics and others across the country are trained in the correct handling of the alternatives to GI. They should also be provided with appropriate toolkits for handling the stainless-steel and uPVC pipe materials.
The responsible line ministry should work with the agency responsible for standards to ensure the importation of quality handpump components and consider certification of suppliers.

The full report is available here.

Borehole Drilling Supervision Capacity in Zimbabwe

by Joseph T Njanike

Photo: Supervised Borehole Drilling Project: Collection of Water Samples for Water Quality Analysis at a completed Borehole during the Final Certification Process

As one of the few remaining qualified, experienced, and active drilling supervisors in Zimbabwe, I would like to share experiences on the status of borehole drilling supervision in my country, Zimbabwe.

Drilling Supervision: A Technical Perspective

Rural areas, where the majority of Zimbabweans reside, are mainly serviced through groundwater sources for their water supply needs. The life span for a significant number of boreholes that have invariably become the technology of choice in Zimbabwe has in most cases proved to be short. This has mainly been due to shortcomings bedeviling the drilling and construction process thereby making the professionalisation of the borehole drilling imperative. Borehole drilling supervision, among other factors, is an integral component of the borehole drilling professionalisation process. This requires the hiring of professionals with relevant qualifications and experience to provide adequate supervision of drilling and related operations for the purposes of controlling the quality of work and securing compliance with the design and technical specifications stipulated for the drilling works as well as generating information for making key decisions in terms of on-site design modifications and the final borehole depth. In this context, questions about whether there is sufficient capacity to supervise borehole drilling in Zimbabwe would need some answers.

Professionals have left the country

Most of the qualified hydrogeologists or professionals with a geological background and relevant experience in drilling supervision have migrated to other countries in the Southern Africa region and beyond. This has largely been due to the fact that job opportunities in the groundwater development field in Zimbabwe are scarce.

The presence of a handpump does not mean that people have access to reliable and sustainable water services. Here’s how we tried to show it in eight councils in the Mvila Division, South Region of Cameroon.

By Victor Dang Mvongo, MSc, a PhD student at the University of Dschang (Cameroon) and an independent consultant in WASH. He conducted the work featured in this blog at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences.

Handpumps, the most common rural water supply equipment in sub-Saharan Africa, are a symbol of the sustainability issue facing rural water services. According to Macarthur (2015), handpumps are a lifesaver for 184 million people living in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan African statistics on handpumps’ functionality indicate that 36% of them are broken, with country-level rates varying from 10% to 65% (RWSN 2009).

In Cameroon, little data are available on the functionality of the handpump. However, Deal and Furey (2019) estimate that 32% of handpumps are non-functional. Thus, for the impacted rural areas, this means that the anticipated returns on investment—better health, nutrition, and education—are jeopardized. In order to mobilize the necessary national and international efforts in the region, this study intends to give local information on the functionality of handpumps in the Mvila Division (Southern Region of Cameroon).

The role of galvanized pipes in the corrosion and failure of hand pumps

Stop the Rot during ZAWAFE 2023 Zambia – 4/4

This blog is part of a four-part series covering the presentations given at the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.

Our blog series takes a focused look at the presentations and discussions that revolved around “Addressing Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion in Zambia – Stop the Rot!”, which was co-convened by UNICEF and WaterAid, together with Ask for Water GmbH and the RWSN, hosted by Skat Foundation.

Cover photo: Red, iron-rich water being pumped. Photo: WaterAid Uganda

Second session:

The role of galvanized pipes in the corrosion and failure of hand pumps

Empowered Communities Helping Others (ECHO) has been implementing a safe water project since 2020. This is a Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) project, whose main intervention is borehole rehabilitation which is implemented in rural parts of Zambia’s Western and Central Provinces, in collaboration with the Local Authority. In practice, the need to rehabilitate a borehole arises when a functioning borehole presents usage problems such as non-production of water, worn out parts such as pipes, rods, handles, chains, cylinders, water chambers, pedestal, head assembly, bearings, etc.

Since 2020, ECHO has rehabilitated a total of about 850 boreholes in Central and Western Zambia, benefiting a total of about 255,000 people.

It was found that rehabilitating a borehole can be more economical than constructing a new one. It is simpler and faster and can be an appropriate solution in an emergency because it doesn’t require things like mobilizing a drilling rig. However, if the rehabilitated borehole is to be used for a long time, it is important to estimate its life expectancy.

The rehabilitation option chosen depends on the conditions of the existing borehole, the causes of the damage, the technical and logistic options, and the existing alternatives such as the construction of a new water point.

According to the severity of the borehole problems, the work requirements may vary from a simple repair at the surface to re-equipment.

For the project, all GI pipes are replaced with new PVC ones. This is done in order to prevent and reduce iron contamination (as a result of corrosion) which from the past four years we have observed is a contributing factor to borehole failure and abandonment

The main observed sources of iron are:

▪ From natural sources in the aquifer

▪ From pump components such as steel casings and galvanized pipes.

▪ In other instances, a combination of both has been observed to be possible. ▪ Within 3 to 6 months of installing hand pumps with galvanized material, pipes and rods have been found to be heavily corroded.

▪ When corrosion is the main source of iron, iron concentrations reduce drastically when water is pumped out and fresh recharge is allowed. If iron concentrations remain high throughout during continued pumping, the case has been that it is likely the iron is coming from the aquifer.

Experiences on hand pump corrosion

Hand pumps with GI pipes, sometimes only a year or two old have corroded, and people have returned to unprotected water sources. Water with pH below 6 has been observed to have corroded pipes. High iron concentrations in handpumps have been a usual occurrence this has been observed through regular water quality testing and evaluating the change in iron concentration over the period of our operations. Stainless steel pipes and rods had corrosion rates lower than galvanized iron (GI) pipes and rods.

Experiences on hand pump corrosion

The brown or reddish color is observed in the morning when the pumps had not been used during the night

However, groundwater has been observed to hold significant concentrations of iron but appears clear and colorless. When this water is pumped out after being exposed to the atmosphere, the color changes to red/brown.

Figure 3: Sampled on Friday 2nd June 2023 in Central Province.

General complaints recorded from communities:

Within weeks and months of installation, communities would begin to complain about water quality. These complaints range from metallic taste, odor, and the appearance of water. Also, the communities would report discoloration of water and cloths and highly turbid water.

All these result in people abandoning the water point and going back to unprotected alternative water sources.

Positive observations

The use of uPVC pipes and stainless-steel adapters has so far shown positive results in reducing iron contamination. After switching from galvanized pipes to UPVC, the communities have observed reduced to no brown or reddish color in the water. uPVC pipes last long, so you won’t have to worry about replacing them anytime soon. Since uPVC is non-porous, uPVC pipes help by preventing any contamination from occurring. uPVC is resistant to corrosion as it is not susceptible to chemical and electrochemical reactions, so there are better option in controlling iron contamination. The use of uPVC pipes and stainless-steel adapters has so far shown positive results in reducing iron contamination

Figure 4: Riser pipe removal and water quality testing for an installation that was less than six months old by ECHO.

What we are advocating for:

▪ Stakeholders should address the handpumps with corrosion problems as a priority in order to guarantee the water quality we supply to the people.

▪ Testing boreholes that present iron contamination to determine whether the source of iron is from the aquifer or from corrosion. This will provide the best options for the right material to equip the water point with

▪ Competent borehole drilling and rehabilitation supervision should be ensured so that all standards and specifications are adhered to.

▪ Regular water quality analysis is undertaken, and critical parameters are tested to address problems such as corrosion and other related problems that shorten the life span of a hand pump

You are invited to access the presentations HERE, along with the session’s concept and report. If you would like to dive deeper into the enriching exploration of water challenges and solutions through the Stop the Rot initiative, visit this page.

About the author:

Annie Kalusa – Kapambwe presenting at at ZAWAFE 2023

Annie Kalusa is an accomplished development practitioner and administrator. Currently working for a local Zambian NGO Empowered Communities Helping Others (ECHO) in Zambia, focusing on improving the wellbeing of Vulnerable Rural Communities. Her areas of focus are climate resilient Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). She is currently developing her thesis on Rural Agriculture Practices and Mechanisms for Water Resource Management.

Photo credits: Annie Kalusa

The journey towards reducing the effects of rapid corrosion in Kalumbila District, Zambia

Stop the Rot during ZAWAFE 2023 Zambia – 3/4

This blog is part of a four-part blog series highlighting the presentations delivered during the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.

Third session:

The journey towards reducing the effects of rapid corrosion in Kalumbila District.

Kalumbila District is a district in the North-Western Province of Zambia. It has two major mines namely Lumwana and Kalumbila Mines.

With a population of over 170,000, the district has about 300 water points (boreholes and protected wells equipped with handpumps).

Rapid handpump corrosion has been a problem since the district was created in 2015. One of the interventions that the district has undertaken has been iron removal filters (to remove iron from pumped water), although these have not been sustainable.

Figure 1: Location of Kalimbula District

In every program of drilling of boreholes about 40% of boreholes were abandoned within one year after handover due to rapid corrosion.

We started looking for a solution to this problem. We found that iron filters were used but were not sustainable.

Figure 2: Handpump evaluation

One of the interventions that the district has undertaken has been iron removal filters (to remove iron from pumped water), although these have not been sustainable. In Kalumbila District it was found, that in every borehole programme, about 40% of the handpumps installed were abandoned due to high iron content, with some boreholes being abandoned as early as three months after construction and commissioning.

Projects

In 2017 UNICEF supported Kalumbila district in the drilling of 23 boreholes and rehabilitation of 15 water points.

In 2018 JICA also supported Kalumbila district with rehabilitation of 77 water points using uPVC pipes with stainless steel adapters. It is from these projects that we learnt a lot of important lessons and made recommendations to the D-WASHE committee. No water point was abandoned after one year of handover Kalumbila district decided to suspend the use of galvanised iron (GI) pipes and recommended the use of stainless steel and uPVC pipes for Indian Mark II and Afridev hand pumps.

Lessons learnt

It is from these two projects that we learnt a lot of lessons, and we told ourselves never to keep quiet. From these two projects, we observed that no water point was abandoned after one year of handover. We saw a solution – why continue to use GI pipes when there was a solution. So we made recommendations to the D-WASHE committee. After this, Kalumbila district decided to suspend the use of galvanised iron (GI) pipes and recommended the use of stainless steel and uPVC pipes for India Mark II and Afridev hand pumps. We have discovered that handpumps with stainless steel riser pipes do not require frequent repair and maintenance whereas sometimes the GI pipes would require replacement every six months. For the past four years, those handpumps remain working.

Our challenges include a lack of funding for the rehabilitation of boreholes affected by rapid corrosion. Further, some stakeholders have not supported the districts fully.

Recommendations

Stakeholders at the national level take an interest in order to address this issue of rapid corrosion.
The use of materials that are environmentally friendly without change of properties when they come into contact with aggressive water (i.e. materials such as stainless steel and uPVC).
There is capacity building of all Area Pump Menders (APMs) in Afridev hand pumps.
All hand pumps that have galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes are to be rehabilitated.

About the author:

Daniel Shimanza presenting at ZAWAFE 2023

Daniel Shimanza is a Zambian Citizen who has worked in the water sector for more than 6 years. He worked on many water supply projects in Kalumbila district, Zambia in collaboration with GRZ, NGOs such as UNICEF, and World Vision. He has a passion for the improvement of access to clean water supply for people living in rural areas. He’s championing a campaign to reduce the effects of rapid corrosion in Kalumbila district by using alternative materials such as stainless steel pipes, PVC pipes, Iron Filters, and more. He holds a Diploma in Water Engineering from NRDC and currently pursuing a Bachelor of Civil Engineering from the Copperbelt University.

Category: Sustainable Groundwater Development