Handpump Technology – Rural Water Supply Network

Change our views – Blog 2: Confessions of a systems thinker and engineers as we listen

By Bethlehem Mengistu (Agenda for Change), Kerstin Danert (Ask for Water)

Whether the starting point is a broken pump or a fragmented WASH system, one truth connects Stop the Rot and Agenda for Change: you cannot deliver safe, sustainable water services without both construction quality and resilient systems. Both platforms involve partners in government, civil society, funding agencies, the private sector and academia; both are striving to improve rural water supply services, and yet they are different. This is our second joint blog

BREAKING DOWN BARRIERS

Bethlehem: When we talk about breaking down barriers, I think one of the biggest ones is still a perceived divide between “the engineers” and “the systems people.” Too often, engineering quality is treated as a stand-alone issue, while systems strengthening is seen as something abstract that sits above the technical work. But in reality, the two can’t be separated.

So here’s my challenge back to you both, as engineers: if you know what good construction looks like, and you see the same mistakes repeated year after year, what will it take for you to push beyond the borehole and also work on changing the policies, budgets, and accountability that make quality the norm instead of the exception?

Because unless engineering expertise connects to governance, financing, and long-term service delivery, we will keep fixing the same broken pumps without fixing the reasons they break.

TACKLING COMPLEX ISSUES

Kerstin: This is exactly what Stop the Rot is trying to do, building on years of the efforts and experiences within Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN). Stop the Rot is trying to tackle a complex issue. Let me take a related long-running example to explain. Boreholes fail for a variety of reasons. RWSN, as a partnership of organisations, has worked to understand the drilling sector in a number of countries, before it developed international technical guidelines to unpack borehole siting, costing and pricing, procurement and contract management and drilling supervision. Recognizing that these topics needed to also be explained succinctly, a series in four short animated videos were produced. Training courses in a number of countries were also run, alongside putting all of the training materials into the public domain.

But this was not enough to change sector practices.

So a guidance note was developed to set out how organisations could raise drilling professionalism. Building on this, online courses gave the opportunity to stakeholders to engage with policy and project issues laid out in the guidance note. The courses were run three times, attended by several hundred people from all over the world, and brought many issues to light. We even have a film that shares some of the stories of change from those taking the courses.

So, over the years, a small group of engineers and hydrogeologists working for different organisations have tried to reach out. Some organisations, including The Water Project, WaterAid and UNICEF, as well as committed individuals have made improvements to the way that they work. However, I am not convinced there is enough change – especially at national level to ensure that high quality boreholes are consistently built.

So we have tried, over two decades, with limited funding, to reach far beyond engineering. I say reach out, because the term “systems” was not being used when RWSN started trying to raise drilling professionalism. With Stop the Rot we are looking more at handpumps, while not forgetting boreholes.

**Why are some boreholes better than others? Screenshot from educational film developed by RWSN (https://vimeo.com/185289895**)

Bethlehem: And that’s exactly the point, Kerstin. You have described decades of dedicated, thoughtful work, pushing from the technical side into the system. However, the truth is that until governments, donors, and implementing agencies view drilling professionalism as essential to sustainable services, rather than a nice-to-have, we may continue to go in circles.

The fact that RWSN and partners have had to produce international guidelines, videos, training courses, and online courses to promote drilling supervision and procurement practices conveys the depth of the problem. It’s not a lack of knowledge; we know what good looks like. The issue is a mix of structural resistance and deep-rooted inertia, an implicit norm of low standards and short-term fixes that continues to undermine progress.

Every failed borehole or poor quality handpump is as much a governance failure as it is a technical one. Quality construction and long-term service delivery are system-wide responsibilities. And if we truly want to stop the rot, we need everyone (all the actors), the engineers, yes, but also ministers, accountants, and planners, taking shared ownership of that reality.

So here’s my question back to you, and to all of us in the sector: If we agree that quality is a systems issue, how do we step more fully into that space? How do we bridge the perceived divide and ensure that engineering expertise informs not just designs and specs, but also budgets, policies, and long-term planning? We won’t fix the system alone, but we do have a vital role in shaping it, together.

PRIORITIZATION AND COLLABORATION

Kerstin: I have not seen the root of the problem as a divide up to now, but rather as one of a lack of prioritisation in some organisations – at the highest levels – to get the basics right as Catherine put it in our first blog. Perhaps the framing of a divide, and of barriers can bring about a breakthrough. Please help us to figure out what else is needed to ensure that, for example: that budgets consistently include professional drilling supervision; that policies ensure that rapidly corroding parts are no longer installed in aggressive groundwater; that policies support supply chains to be robust enough to ensure quality components land in the hands of drillers and mechanics; that long term planning supports effective groundwater resources management?

Bethlehem: The real problem may not be a divide, but a lack of prioritization. We have let both approaches exist side by side for too long. Instead of treating engineering excellence and systems strengthening as separate, we should see them as working together to achieve reliable, lasting water services.

We already have the evidence we need. Years of guidance, training, and technical innovation have shown us what works. Systems thinking explains why success is not always consistent. The real gap is not knowledge, but turning it into practice, incentives, and accountability.

What we need now is not just more collaboration, but a new approach from everyone. Engineers stepping more deliberately into policy and finance discussions. Systems experts engaging more deeply with the technical details that affect long-term service. And leaders in government, donor groups, and organizations treating ‘getting the basics right’ as essential, not optional.

In the end, quality is not just a technical detail. It is the result of the whole system working well.

That is how we stop the rot. Not by choosing between systems or engineering, but by finally refusing to separate them.

Co-creation in collaboration from our Agenda for Change convening in the Sahel

Change our views – Blog 1: Fixing pumps and perceptions – a systems love story

By Bethlehem Mengistu (Agenda for Change), Catherine McManus (The Water Project), Kerstin Danert (Ask for Water)

BACKGROUND

Agenda for Change is rooted in systems strengthening

Stop the Rot is concerned about the quality of infrastructure.

This blog brings us together – one social scientist, Bethlehem (Agenda for Change) and two engineers, Catherine (The Water Project) and Kerstin (Ask for Water Ltd) from Stop the Rot. It explores where our work converges, where it differs, and what practitioners across the sector can learn from this intersection.

INTRODUCING AGENDA FOR CHANGE AND STOP THE ROT

Kerstin: So Bethlehem, can you explain what Agenda for Change is trying to achieve, and how it works?

Bethlehem: Thanks, Kerstin! I appreciate that we are having this conversation because while broken pumps are easy to spot, broken systems are not. That’s where Agenda for Change comes in.

Think of us as the people behind the scenes, making sure the whole rural water “machine” works-not just today, but five, ten, twenty or even thirty years from now. That means working with governments, utilities and communities to strengthen everything from planning and policy to budgeting and monitoring. And we achieve this by incentivising collaboration and supporting collective action. Our members and partners work together in countries, sharing tools, aligning around government-led plans, and learning from one another. We believe that when organisations coordinate and work in harmony, lasting change occurs.

Right now, Agenda for Change has 20+ members working across more than 60 countries with local and national governments to build strong, resilient WASH systems that can withstand the test of time and climate shocks.

Whether it’s helping a district government to develop a realistic water budget, supporting a utility to track service levels, or training local technicians to maintain infrastructure, our goal remains the same: to ensure everyone, everywhere, has access to sustainable water and sanitation services.

Bethlehem: So Kerstin, can you tell me about Stop the Rot?

Kerstin: Stop the Rot and its members are concerned about the flaws and gaps that lead to poor quality boreholes and pumps – which in turn contribute to poor performance and even failure of water supplies.

A core component of Stop the Rot is its Action Group, currently comprising over 90 members from all stakeholder groups. We meet online every quarter, share experiences, challenges, successes and – especially learnings. The meetings provide a safe and supportive space for dialogue on ways and means of ensuring quality infrastructure. Our geographic focus is sub-Saharan Africa, with our technical focus being services that rely on boreholes and handpumps.

MORE THAN TECHNOLOGY

Bethlehem: OK – so Stop the Rot is really interested in technical questions – as in about the technology?

Catherine: We do often start there, but it’s not where we end. It is tempting to think that an engineer will just focus on one broken pipe in one well. But as an engineer, I am asking if that broken pipe is corroding, and if so, is it because the material is not suitable for the groundwater (in technical terms – galvanized iron (GI) installed in aggressively low pH water, or stainless steel of the wrong grade)? Or is a pump seal wearing because there are fine particles in the water (typically a problem of a poorly constructed borehole). These are examples of a technical diagnosis.

And then, beyond this technical diagnosis, I am asking: why did that happen? Were high-quality materials not available in local supply chains, or were they considered too expensive; was oversight of the borehole construction process lacking? And the real question – what can I do about any of that?

Sure, at Stop the Rot we are concerned that repairs or rehabilitation to get water flowing are done, but we are also aware of systems approaches. I think the problem is that we need to better wrestle with those issues – or connect to those who can! That’s why I am so glad to be more connected to Agenda for Change. It can feel really difficult to focus on contextual issues when faced with a broken piece of infrastructure, but we must do just that – and we’re thrilled to be embarking on this exchange with Agenda for Change.

Example of corrosion realities during handpump maintenance (Source: Larry Bentley)

Bethlehem: I am also excited that we are exchanging on this, because right now, system strengthening is more urgent than ever. With global aid budgets under pressure and climate risks rising, we can’t afford to hold on to silos. Systems strengthening isn’t just a nice idea, it’s essential. It can support countries to build resilient water services that don’t rely forever on external funding or quick fixes.

And here’s where I think Agenda for Change and Stop the Rot intersect: infrastructure is not separate from the system, it is part of it. But infrastructure alone won’t deliver services. It must be supported by financing, regulation, monitoring, skilled personnel, and local ownership. We need to look at infrastructure through the lens of the whole system, the interplay of all the other parts. That’s how we move from short-term fixes to lasting solutions.

THE INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS AND INFRASTUCTURE

Getting infrastructure quality right from the outset – a series of checklists for WASH Funders (and Grantees)

Dr Kerstin Danert, Ask for Water Ltd, Edinburgh, Scotland

High-quality infrastructure design and construction is not the only important concern in relation to rural water supply services, but provides a solid basis. Poor quality infrastructure jeopardises everything that follows – including it the maintenance, and management of the service, and even being able to collect user fees.

There are many reasons why infrastructure ends up not meeting the standards needed. And for the last two decades, the Rural Supply Network (RWSN) has emphasised ensuring that boreholes are properly drilled and completed – with a range of guidance and training materials now widely available – and (I am pleased to know) used!

However, we were mainly writing (or making short films) for people that are implementing projects. With the most recent publication we are addressing a different audience – FUNDERS OF WATER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE. You may ask yourself why?

Unfortunately, not all funding agencies have the policies in place, nor the checks and balances that consistently foster high-quality infrastructure – whether initial construction and installation, or rehabilitation. And to make matters worse, well-intentioned policies can actually have negative unintended consequences. Low-per capita investment costs are a case in point – they can be set too low.

At the end of 2024, RWSN published the WASH Funders Infrastructure Checklists: Boreholes and Handpumps. They start off by recognising that when it comes to infrastructure quality, a number of things can go wrong. Grantees may simply not have the procedures in place, or the capacity to consistently ensure quality or they may not follow suitable contracting procedures. National standards may be lacking, or grantees may cut corners in order to meet Funder requests for an (unrealistic) low budget or fast schedules.

We have developed a series of four checklists – each providing guidance for WASH funders, whether financing direct implementation or systems strengthening activities. We have tried to make the checklists accessible even for those without a detailed knowledge of groundwater, drilling or handpumps. Each checklist is intended to help funders to reflect on their policies and procedures and/or those followed by the respective grantees.

Please take a look – and do get back to us through ask@ask-for-water.ch with comments feedback. We would like to keep improving this guidance in the future!

The WASH Funders Checklists were developed under the RWSN Initiative Stop the Rot.

Functionality of water supply handpumps in Cameroon (Central Africa): a review of data from 310 councils

Handpumps have revolutionized access to safe and reliable water supplies in Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in rural areas. They constitute a healthy and viable alternative solution when surface water is contaminated. Danert (2022) estimates that 200 million people in sub-Saharan depend on 700,000 handpumps to supply themselves with drinking water.

Unfortunately, many handpumps service face performance issues or premature failure due to technical or installation defects in the borehole or pump, operational and maintenance weaknesses, or financial constraints (World Bank, 2024). Statistics on the functionality of handpumps in Cameroon are very sparse and dispersed with very little data available. However, some studies show that 25% to 32% of handpumps in Cameroon are inoperative (RWSN, 2009; Foster et al., 2019).

Previous reviews of handpumps functionality data in Cameroon have been conducted, including RWSN (2009) and Foster et al. (2019). However, these estimations were based on partial data and thus may not reflect the situation in the country as a whole. In addition, the number of handpumps installed each year is constantly increasing, and there is a need to update functionality data. Thus the interest of the study.

The methodological approach used in this study was based on online searches. To do so, we searched, collected, and analyzed relevant data from the 310 Councils Development Plan (CDP) that had been collected from 2010 to 2022. Information sources included data sets and documents available online through the data portals of the National Community-Driven Development Program (PNDP).

Overall, based on the data analysed, the number of handpumps used as the main source of drinking water supply in Cameroon is 20,572, of which 9,113 are installed in modern wells and 11,459 in boreholes. Approximately 8.2 million people in Cameroon rely on a handpump for their main drinking water supply, which is equivalent to 36.8% of the population of Cameroon. Findings indicates that one in three handpumps in Cameroon is non-functional, which in 2022 was roughly equivalent to 6,724 inoperative water points. To put this in perspective, this number is about 33% of the total number of handpumps, enough to supply 2.7 million people, assuming 400 inhabitants per handpumps. According to this estimate, it is about 44.8 billion CFA francs, or 66.8 million USD, was invested in the construction of water points that are immobilized and do not generate any benefit (improved health, nutrition, or education).

Figure 1 presents estimations of non-functionality in the ten regions of Cameroon. This figure shows that the region that had the highest level of non-functional handpumps is the Adamawa region (43%), followed by the East region (39%), the Littoral (37%), the North (35%), the South (35%), the West (32%), the South West (31%), the Center (30%), the North West (30%), and the Far North (28%).

Figure 1 | Handpump functionality rate for Cameroon

The handpumps, like the Community Based Management, seem not to have given the expected results. The fact that some handpumps fail prematurely seems to indicate that technical defects (poor quality components and rapid corrosion) contribute to handpump failure and underperformance. Further, this review notes that questions related to the quality of handpump material and the corrosion of handpumps have not been sufficiently taken into account in the various research studies in Cameroon and Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, Future research should focus on physical audits of handpumps, and handpump rehabilitation campaigns in order to shed light on these issues. Finally, preventing rapid corrosion of handpumps through regulations should be implemented in order to improve the performance of handpumps. Regulations may be implemented at the national, regional, or local levels, and it is advised to employ a pH threshold of less than 6.5 as a corrosion risk indication. Once they are more precisely defined, additional risk factors such as salinity, chloride, and sulphate levels can be added.

About the author:

Victor Dang Mvongo, MSc is a PhD Student at the University of Dschang (Cameroon) and an independent consultant in WASH. He conducted the work featured in this blog at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences.

Further reading:

Mvongo D.V, Defo C (2024) Functionality of water supply handpumps in Cameroon (Central Africa). Journal of water, sanitation and Hygiene for development. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.085

References:

Danert, K. (2022) Halte aux dégradations Rapport I : Fiabilité, fonctionnalité et défaillance technique des pompes à motricité humaine. Recherche-action sur la corrosion et la qualité des composants des pompes à motricité humaine en Afrique subsaharienne. Ask for Water GmbH, Skat Foundation et RWSN, St Gallen, Suisse.

Foster, T., Furey, S., Banks, B. & Willets, J. 2019 Functionality of handpump water supplies: a review of data from sub-Saharan Africa and the Asia-Pacific region. International Journal of Water Resources Development 36 (5): 855–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2018.1543117

RWSN 2009 Handpump data, selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa. RWSN, St Gallen, Suisse. https://www.ruralwater-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/203.pdf

Stop the Rot: Uganda

Documentation of Experiences and Lessons Learnt in the prevention of Rapid Handpump Corrosion in Uganda

Report by Kerstin Danert, Paul Bisoborwa, Erisa Kyeyune, Robert Mutiibwa and Loretta Nakayima

The full report is available here.

About 67% of the population of rural Uganda rely on a handpump, and, according to the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) database, the country currently has an asset base of over 63,000 handpumps. While there is a policy shift towards piped supplies (including using solar-driven pumps), handpumps will remain important in providing water to Uganda’s rural population for the foreseeable future. The U2 and U3 (known elsewhere as the India Mark II and Mark III), as well as the Uganda 3 Modified Pump (U3M) are the standardised pumps used in the country.

The rapid corrosion of submerged handpump riser pipes and rods has been well documented in Uganda, with over a dozen reports, and studies, including academic publications on the subject. When handpumps corrode, the red, badly-tasting water of the supply is often rejected and sources abandoned, with users returning to more distant and contaminated supplies. Rapid corrosion also leads to premature failure of the supply as riser pipes leak or even break completely. It is widely accepted that galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes and rods corrode in aggressive groundwater where pH levels are low (<6.5). High levels of salinity and high chloride concentrations are also highly corrosive.

In recognition of the widespread corrosion problem in Uganda, in 2016 MWE issued a letter suspending the use of galvanised iron riser pipes. Despite the fact that rapid corrosion is a problem in at least 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (plus Sudan), Uganda is one of the very few countries to have taken affirmative action to address the issue.

This short study, funded by The Waterloo Foundation, set out to document Uganda’s experience and lessons learnt in preventing rapid corrosion. It is intended to provide insights and recommendations for Uganda and other countries. The in-country study was undertaken in October/November 2023, and comprised interviews with 55 stakeholders from government, suppliers, NGOs, drillers and handpump mechanics as well as a review of select documentation and analysis of quantitative data collected in 16 districts by the NGO Water for People. As well as discussing with stakeholders based in Kampala, the study involved visits to Mityana, Kibaale, Kyegegwa, Mubende, Kamwenge and Masindi Districts, including some observations of components and handpump removal.

The study has found qualitative evidence that the suspension of use of GI pipes on handpump installations in Uganda has had an overall positive effect on reducing the phenomenon of handpump corrosion in the country. It took a few years for stakeholders to adjust to the suspension, including availing alternative materials and determining which grades of stainless steel to be used. In the early years, there were issues of availability and supply of alternatives, gaps in information among some stakeholders alongside cost concerns. Initially, some organisations installed grade 202 stainless steel, which was also found to corrode rapidly. In addition to stainless steel pipes, uPVC (with uPVC connectors) and uPVC pipes with stainless steel connectors are used.

While most stakeholders seem to be aware of the suspension of GI riser pipes and rods, this does not seem to be fully adhered to, with some district local governments, NGOs and communities apparently still installing GI on new installations or for replacements. The study witnessed “mixed” installations comprising GI, and stainless steel (which also sometimes appeared to comprise different grades). Such installations risk creating problems through galvanic corrosion, a phenomenon whereby dissimilar metals submerged in water increase corrosion.

The study concludes with a number of recommendations as summarised below:

Studies and research

Explore reasons why some stakeholders are not adhering to the suspension of GI riser pipes and pump rods and how to effectively overcome these barriers.
Undertake analysis of quantitative data including MWE Management Information System (MIS) data on shallow wells and boreholes (including their functionality status/due for decommissioning). Quantify the extent to which handpumps with corroding GI components have been replaced in the country, and also estimate the cost and human capacity implications of replacing poorly functioning or abandoned sources as a result of corrosion.
Monitor installations to determine if there are any problems with corrosion of the water tank and cylinder when connected to a stainless steel pipe as a result of galvanic corrosion or poor installation, and consider checking for the release of contaminants, including lead.
Clarify maximum installation depths for alternative materials through testing, and communicate this clearly to all stakeholders through written guidance (discussed below).
Developa short document (and film) on what users can measure and inspect directly. This could support stakeholders in assuring quality.
Undertake further research on the relationships between pH, salinity, other water quality parameters and the quality of the galvanising (particularly the thickness of the galvanising).
Explore alternatives to the nationwide suspension of GI, such as lifting the suspension locally based on very clear, scientifically robust criteria in relation to pH and salinity.
The appropriateness of the discontinuation of funding for shallow wells should be further studied and reviewed for appropriateness.

Recommended actions for Uganda

Support quality assurance efforts by updating the Uganda Standard Specifications for the India Mark deepwell and shallow well handpumps, referred to in Uganda as the U2 and U3 pumps.
Develop a certification mechanism for the suppliers of handpumps/components to ensure quality and include labelling requirements to help consumers identify appropriate parts.
Raise awareness and improve knowledge of (i) the GI suspension, and the rationale behind it, (ii) how to determine whether iron in water is naturally occurring or caused by corrosion, (iii) appropriate alternatives (iv) key issues with respect to grades of stainless steel and depth limitations and (v) identifying appropriate parts. Written guidance should be provided.
Provide training for handpump mechanics and handpump installers across the country on the correct handling of the uPVC and stainless-steel alternatives currently available on the market in Uganda, and ensure that they have the appropriate toolkits to handle these materials.
Incorporate inspection of handpump component quality and installation in post-construction monitoring by government, NGOs, the Uganda Drilling Contractors Association (UDCA) and funding agencies.
Continue to engage with and support innovations such as the Handpump Improvement Project.
MWE, in collaboration with NGOs and District Local Governments should find ways of supporting poor and vulnerable communities with ongoing corrosion problems to replace GI pipes and rods.

Lessons for other countries

Based on the experiences of Uganda, key lessons for other countries that are considering taking affirmative action to address rapid handpump corrosion are:

Undertake an in-country study to document the extent of the problem and any efforts that may have been undertaken to address it in the past. If rapid handpump corrosion is found to be a widespread problem in the country, and is related to GI installed in aggressive groundwater, consider suspending the use of GI – carefully considering the pros and cons of a nationwide or more localised suspension as well as the feasibility of using alternative parts.
Prior to any suspension, undertake extensive and transparent stakeholder consultation, taking on board concerns and developing a suitable timeline. Provide user-friendly guidance on alternative materials and their handling. In advance of any suspension, ensure that all stakeholders are informed of it, and are made aware of any implications for programmes and budgets.
Government should either refer to suitable international standard specifications, update national standard specifications or (as an interim measure) provide clear guidance regarding alternative materials, components and dimensioning that should be used. Evaluation is needed to ensure that materials are safe for contact with drinking water. Guidance should include information on depth limitations and material handling.
Document the process of suspension, and monitor adherence, as well as challenges faced by organisations and communities, and consider how to adapt programmes and policies to enable changes to be effective.
Ensure that handpump mechanics and others across the country are trained in the correct handling of the alternatives to GI. They should also be provided with appropriate toolkits for handling the stainless-steel and uPVC pipe materials.
The responsible line ministry should work with the agency responsible for standards to ensure the importation of quality handpump components and consider certification of suppliers.

The full report is available here.

The presence of a handpump does not mean that people have access to reliable and sustainable water services. Here’s how we tried to show it in eight councils in the Mvila Division, South Region of Cameroon.

By Victor Dang Mvongo, MSc, a PhD student at the University of Dschang (Cameroon) and an independent consultant in WASH. He conducted the work featured in this blog at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences.

Handpumps, the most common rural water supply equipment in sub-Saharan Africa, are a symbol of the sustainability issue facing rural water services. According to Macarthur (2015), handpumps are a lifesaver for 184 million people living in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan African statistics on handpumps’ functionality indicate that 36% of them are broken, with country-level rates varying from 10% to 65% (RWSN 2009).

In Cameroon, little data are available on the functionality of the handpump. However, Deal and Furey (2019) estimate that 32% of handpumps are non-functional. Thus, for the impacted rural areas, this means that the anticipated returns on investment—better health, nutrition, and education—are jeopardized. In order to mobilize the necessary national and international efforts in the region, this study intends to give local information on the functionality of handpumps in the Mvila Division (Southern Region of Cameroon).

When stainless steel is not stainless steel

Stop the Rot during ZAWAFE 2023 Zambia – 2/4

This blog is part of a four-part series covering the presentations given at the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.

Our blog series takes a focused look at the presentations and discussions that revolved around “Addressing Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion in Zambia – Stop the Rot!”, which was co-convened by UNICEF and WaterAid, together with Ask for Water GmbH and the RWSN, hosted by Skat Foundation.

Measuring water point functionality is trickier than you’d think. Here’s how we tried to make it more reliable in Uganda.

If you measure something, how do you know that someone else would get the same result? This is a fundamental question in many fields including medicine and psychology, but it is rarely considered in rural water supply.

This is a guest blog by Daniel W. Smith, a Water & Sanitation Advisor at the Center for Water Security, Sanitation, and Hygiene at USAID in Washington, DC.

Photo: A handpump mechanic performs preventive maintenance in Uganda
(Photo: Daniel W. Smith)

This problem became painfully apparent during a recent study of professionalizing handpump maintenance in Uganda conducted by the Program for Water, Health, and Development at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment and International Lifeline Fund. Our data collection team had a seemingly straightforward instruction: Count a handpump as functional if it provides water. But different data collectors interpreted the instruction differently. Some would count a handpump as functional even if it took a long time to get a little water. Others counted handpumps in a similar condition as nonfunctional. We needed a clearer, more reliable procedure to ensure that handpump functionality measured by different people would be comparable.

Obituary: Dr. Otto Langenegger – Kloss (22 April 1938 — 19 February 2023)

I am sorry to inform you of the passing of Dr. Otto Langenegger, who peacefully left us on 19 February, 2023 surrounded by his family, aged 84.

Dr Langenegger was the pioneer of rapid handpump corrosion. His seminal publications in 1989 and 1994 set the foundation for all that followed in trying to understand and address this phenomenon.

In his eulogy, he was poignantly referred to as a “nomad around water”. He grew up, in humble surroundings, close to Lake Constance in eastern Switzerland, the youngest of six siblings.

His thirst for discovering and learning could not be quenched by his apprenticeship as a radio technician in Winterthur. He was a through-and-through scientist and researcher, moving between subjects throughout his life, and building on the learning from one area as he branched into another. Together with his wife Dorothea, he moved to work in Canada for several years, from where he was able to, amongst other experiences, be part of an expedition to the Arctic, an exposure that he relished for the rest of his life.

Dr. Langenegger and his wife, with their two sons Urs and Thomas, moved back to Switzerland, and he completed his first PhD at the University of Bern in 1973. But he was soon on the move again, this time to Ethiopia, where he worked as a Hydrogeologist with the Christoffel Mission. He was fascinated by the people and culture, and was saddened to have to leave in 1976 due to the difficult political situation at the time.

Dr. Langenegger was not long back in Switzerland, before heading off to Africa in 1981, initially to Ghana, where he worked for the World Bank on the pioneering water well drilling and handpump installation project of its time in West Africa. This position, and the subsequent assignment based out of Abidjan, took him to Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Mali and Niger.

As a keen observer and compassionate man, Dr Langenegger was both intrigued and appalled by the ‘red water’ problem, coupled with corroding and failing handpumps that he observed in many parts of West Africa during his field work. And so, he set out to understand the causes. Initially using his own allowances to test water quality, he diligently researched this issue. One of his colleagues from the time told me that he stayed in the cheaper hotel in Kumasi – saving money for testing, and filling the bathtub with his tests. He also had his wife, Dorothea, cook plantain with different concentrations of iron-rich water from the rapidly corroding handpumps to see what happened to them. They changed colour.

Anyone working on handpump corrosion is familiar with Otto Langenegger’s seminal publications (1989 and 1994), which have provided the foundation for all that has followed on this topic. His second PhD was in fact on Handpump Corrosion.

After returning to Switzerland in 1989, Dr. Langenegger set up his private consultancy practice, working out of his home in Gais, Appenzell. Overlooked by snow-capped Alpstein mountains, his interest in water found an outlet in learning about the blue coloured snow, high on the slopes. And so once again, this through-and-through researcher set about observing, measuring and interpreting. I would say that Dr. Langenegger’s, keen interest and thirst for knowledge in relation to water was insatiable.

It was 2019 that Dr. Langenegger, who would soon to be known to me by the informal address simply as Otto, contacted me. He had found my own report on Rapid handpump corrosion in Burkina Faso and beyond and wanted to know more. Otto was both disgusted that the corrosion problem had not been fully addressed (after more than 30 years), but was also pleased that it was at least being looked at again. Unbeknown to me previously, he lived just a few stops along the train line from St. Gallen where I am based!

Otto had been out of touch with the water supply world in Africa for a long time, but had, now and then, searched for what may have followed on from his work on handpump corrosion. And so he was aware of the presentation entitled ‘New signs of an old Problem’ at the WaTer Conference in Oklahoma in 2015 by Vincent Casey, Lawrence Brown and Jake Carpenter.

Over the last two and a half years that Otto and I were able to share, he followed all of the ongoing efforts and work to address rapid handpump corrosion – the issue which he has pioneered in the 1980s. He was delighted to be able to talk about the subject, and, researcher that he was, always asked such pertinent questions and put forward ideas.

Throughout his long illness, and even as he grew weak towards the end of his magnificent life, he always wanted to hear the latest news. His delight to hear that the corroding handpumps in Ghana had been replaced in the 1990s is something that will always remain with me. “It was not all for nothing” he remarked, fist in the air, referring to his efforts over 30 years ago.

Dr. Otto Langenegger will be much missed. May he Rest in Peace.

He leaves behind a large family:

Urs and Marika Langenegger-Bohse with their children Tabea, Dominik and Eliane.

Thomas and Anita Langenegger Vogel, with their children Samuel, Jonas, Elias, Rahel and Salome.

His sister, Rosa Massey-Langenegger.

Addressing rapid handpump corrosion: the story of the Ghana Modified India Mark II

In 1983, I moved to live and work in Ghana – some 40 years ago now. Back then, I was the regional supervisor on the 3000 Well Maintenance Unit in Southern and Central Ghana which was funded by the German Development Service under the Rural Water Supply programme. The project was a pioneer of its time, and included drilling boreholes alongside the installation and testing of handpumps in six of Ghana’s regions, as well as the Nanumba district, Northern Region.

We initially installed India Mark II and Moyno pumps, before dropping the Moyno due to technical problems. However, we soon realised that the India Mark II pumps faced corrosion issues. Investigation and testing (as documented by Langennegger, 1989 and Langenegger, 1994) found that the Galvanised Iron components (rods and riser pipes), when installed in water with low pH, had a propensity to rapidly corrode – leading to discolouration of the water and affecting taste, but also causing the pumps to fail prematurely as the rods broke and riser pipes developed cracks and holes and even fell into the borehole. The envisaged idea of maintenance by communities, with assistance from mechanics who could reach villages by motorcycle, was simply not feasible with such installations. Another significant issue related to corrosion of hand pump parts was the water contamination and bad taste of the water. As a result, the water coloured the food and therefore caused the population to stop using the borehole water and forced them to go back to unsafe water sources

We, therefore, had to seek alternatives. This involved field testing and collaborating with the Materials Testing Institute of the University of Darmstadt.

We looked into replacing the galvanised iron components with stainless steel. To ensure the pipes were light, we considered using 3 – 3.5 mm thick pipes, and used a threading that at the time was used in the drilling industry , known as the “rope thread”. Although Atlas Copco had patented this threading type at the time, it was later manufactured in India after the Atlas Copco design period (patent) ended.

Figure 1: Rope thread (Claus Riexinger)

The pump rods presented some challenges as well, since the AISI Stainless Steel grade 316 that we were using was subject to breakage, including the threaded parts. In collaboration with our partners at the University of Darmstadt, we were able to find ways to make this grade of stainless steel more elastic by adding 2-3 % Molybdenum. Other issues with the rods related to the use of rolled thread, which we learned was more durable than cut thread. Incorporating these materials and techniques, we were able to reduce the rod diameter from 12 mm down to 10.8mm, resulting in lighter rods which did not corrode. The only drawback was that the threads could not be cut in the field, but this was not such an issue, as there was no need to cut them when they were installed, or upon maintenance.

Figure 2: Pump installation (Claus Riexinger)

After switching to stainless steel riser pipes, we encountered another issue: -galvanic corrosion between the pipe and the water tank. This type of corrosion occurs when two dissimilar materials come into contact in solution. It was yet another challenge! Fortunately, we were able to solve this problem by replacing the existing flange with a new one made of stainless steel with an insulating gasket, into which the riser pipe could be screwed and prevent any further galvanic corrosion.

Figure 3: Ghana Modified India Mark II Handpump – water tank, spout and flange

After conducting extensive testing and collaborating with the University of Darmstadt over a period of around 4 years, we managed to solve the problem of rapid corrosion of handpumps in Ghana. The improved pump design came to be known as the Ghana Modified India Mark II, and was officially adopted by the Government of Ghana in the 1990s. Its specifications can be downloaded here.

Designing and publishing the specifications for a new pump is one thing, but the other is ensuring that these are adhered to. A series of meetings with government, donors, and NGOs working in the water sector in the 1990s, led to the agreement to no longer use Galvanised Iron. All stakeholders were on board with the change.

Of particular importance was the tremendous support and buy-in of the major donor at the time – KfW (Germany). They agreed to pay for the increased costs of the Ghana Modified Pump on new installations, which at the time was about three times more expensive than the version using Galvanised Iron. KfW also supported the rehabilitation and replacement of the pumps that had previously been installed using Galvanised Iron. As a result, we were able to remove and replace the corroded installations systematically, rather than addressing the issue in a piecemeal manner.

It is estimated that over 4,500 Ghana Modified India Mark II handpumps had been installed in Ghana by the time I left the 3000 Well Maintenance Unit in 1992. Anecdotally, I would say that 90% were working, and of the 10% out of use, they were down for maintenance/repair.

KfW took this design to Cameroon, while Danida took it to Burkina Faso and Zambia. I am not fully aware of what happened next, but I do know that ensuring the quality of stainless steel was a problem in Burkina Faso.

I am very pleased to see that Ghana Modified India Mark II handpumps are now available through the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN), and hope that these can be of use to other countries that are struggling to overcome the rapid handpump corrosion problem.

Figure 4: Example factory inspection Modified India MKII (Claus Riexinger)

However, I have a work of caution too. Although specifications, standards, and clear procurement documents are essential, they are rendered meaningless in the absence of inspection. During my time with the 3000 Well Maintenance Unit and later as an independent consultant, I traveled to India and other places for pre-shipment inspections. I also oversaw the rejection of consignments from India and Europe due to poor quality or manufacturing mistakes. And so, I urge all of you involved in handpump procurement and installation to make sure that you ensure the quality, especially through inspection and material testing.

Ghana Modified India Mark II Drawings and Specifications

More information about Ghana Modified India Mark II (external website)

About the author: Claus Riexinger is a rural WASH expert and freelance consultant with over forty years of experience in development cooperation with Government organisations, private companies, and development agencies mainly in Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Germany, India, Tanzania, and Ghana.

Photo credits: Claus Riexinger