WASH – Rural Water Supply Network

Pastoralists and Water 4 – Are new water supplies in the Horn of Africa drylands the solution for pastoralists’ resilience or part of the problem?

By Jackson Wachira, Masresha Taye, Hussein Wario and Nancy Balfour

“In this fourth blog in the series, I hand over to Jackson Wachira, Masreesha Taya, Hussein Wario and Nancy Balfour who have a thought-provoking blog for us concerning water supplies in the Horn of Africa. It begs us to ask whether the findings from this research in Ethiopia and Kenya could change perceptions about how water development is affecting pastoralist communities?” Dr Kerstin Danert

This blog was originally published by Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent and Protracted Crises (SPARC) on this webpage in August 2024.

In recent years, parts of the Horn of Africa have seen large investments in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector, or ‘WASH’ as a way to build resilience to droughts. In Kenya alone, investments by civil society organisations increased by over 200% between 2017 and 2019, with a significant proportion focusing on drylands.

WASH investments come in many forms and shapes. They include the drilling of new boreholes and rehabilitation of old ones, installation of diesel and solar power systems, water resource management, water trucking, improved sanitation and ‘capacity building’.

For many development actors, the premise is that WASH investments such as these enhance the resilience of dryland communities against shocks, including climate-induced shocks such as drought.

But are investments in new water supplies in the drylands a solution, or part of the problem?

Ongoing SPARC* research in Marsabit, Northern Kenya and the Somali region of Ethiopia unpacks some nuances around water development. Interviewing community members, resource managers, elders, and both governmental and non-governmental individuals who are actively engaged in water development led us to striking findings. While the establishment of new water supplies has generally enhanced people’s access to water, overall these new investments have eroded – rather than enhanced – the resilience of pastoral communities.

Camels drinking from a trough. Credit: Masresha Taye.

Settlement and depleting resources

First, water supply systems, including deep boreholes, have led to increased settlement in areas which pastoralists traditionally reserve for dry-season grazing. Discussions with communities revealed that, while new water supplies have enhanced access to water, particularly for women and children who are designated water collectors for the family, they have also attracted other communities who frequently access these resources. Overuse of these crucial ‘fallback’ grazing areas – which pastoralists reserve for livestock in non-rainy seasons – has led to overgrazing, increasing pastoralists’ exposure to drought. Settlement has also affected the pasture reserves and seed banks around villages where water supplies are installed.

Moreover, the frequent movement of large numbers of livestock has created tension and multiple incidents of conflict between host and incoming communities. Local communities view water points as vulnerable targets for livestock raids, which heightens their sense of insecurity.

In many cases, communities shared with us that they had not been adequately consulted about the new water sources, and their unpopularity has led to backlash. In one area, due to the absence of community consultation, a civil society organisation was prevented from installing power to a borehole by the community who thought doing so would open up the area to new settlements. We also observed cases of water sources being destroyed by local communities, who feared such developments would attract outsiders to come and settle.

Overlapping water management regimes

Secondly, water developers’ failure to adequately integrate traditional water management structures undermines the success of projects.

Among Kenyan Borana communities, for instance, there is a person responsible for managing community water resources in ways that ensure cleanliness and fair access to all community members, including those migrating from other regions. This person, known as the aba erega, still helps manage water supplies today, but they have been overshadowed by newer Water Management Committees, which have become a key condition for partners investing in new water supplies.

The role of the Water Management Committee includes collecting fees that ostensibly go into repairing and maintaining new water supplies. However, most of the water supplies we visited were described by communities as highly unreliable, often breaking down a few months after they have been installed. The result has been widespread contestation among water users, who blame committee members for embezzling community funds while overseeing water systems that do not serve them when they need them most. Due to the high unreliability of many water systems in these areas, communities revert to walking long distances to access water, heavily impacting human and animal health, particularly during drought. By contrast, traditional water supplies run by indigenous water management appear to be much more reliable.

Poor quality

The third key issue which SPARC research uncovered is the poor quality of most of the new water supplies. In many areas, communities stated that they experience severe diarrhoea and stomach pains when they consume water from some boreholes because of high salinity, which affects both the people and the livestock that rely on them. The result is that water sources are often not used. In Ethiopia’s Somali region, for example, the government has developed deep boreholes in areas previously devoid of water supplies – but after initial enthusiasm, pastoralists have switched to traditional water sources due to health concerns.

The issue with salinity is recognised by government water offices, and some actors have attempted to address this challenge by installing desalination plants. However, possibly due to their complex nature, the desalination plans are not operating effectively, with one community contending that their plant worked well for a short time, before starting to discharge water that was even more saline.

Reimagining water resilience in the drylands

The provision of clean water for people and livestock is critical for the resilience of dryland communities. Yet the current approach of free-for-all investment focused only on the number of new water supplies and number of people reached often serves to undermine, rather than enhance, pastoralists’ resilience to shocks.

What does effective pastoralist water development look like? Our research suggests some ways forward. Efforts should be made to adequately integrate traditional governance mechanisms in the management of water supplies; failure to do so enhances social fragmentation and conflict. And urgent action needs to be taken to desalinate the toxic water that communities in these regions continue to consume every day, and improve desalination technologies so they are easier for communities to repair themselves.

Perhaps most importantly, development actors must acknowledge that mobile pastoralism remains the key adaptation strategy for pastoralist communities in the Horn of Africa. Water development projects must take the threats of settlement around water sources, and its attendant problems, seriously if they want to contribute to building resilience in the drylands.

The research for was carried out under SPARC-funded programme carried out by the Centre for Research and Development in Drylands (CRDD) and Masresha Taye (independent researcher) in collaboration with the Centre for Humanitarian Change. Findings from the research will be published in a Technical Report and Policy Brief on SPARC website in May 2025. A photo essay on the same is available here. A video presentation of the findings was recorded at World Water Week 2024 and available here

* SPARC refers to the six-year programme entitled Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent and Protracted Crises

GLOBAL DRIVERS AND PHENOMENA: ADVANCING GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN WASH

Photo 1. Female Peacekeeper overseeing water supply in Chad. Source: Our Secure Future, accessed October 2024

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

The UN WWDR 2026 shall serve as a vital resource, illustrating how global trends and phenomena are reshaping gender dynamics in societies around the world. The interplay between conflict, migration, and gender equity in WASH reveals stark realities. In regions afflicted by conflict and instability, women’s safety and access to essential services are severely compromised.

A poignant testimony from a woman in Gaza encapsulates this struggle: “We [women] cannot meet our simplest and most basic needs: eating well, drinking safe water, accessing a toilet, having sanitary pads, taking a shower, changing our clothes.”

The plight of women in conflict zones is further exacerbated by migration. Women and girls face an increased risk of sexual and gender-based violence during conflicts. Yet, amid these challenges, women remain indispensable agents of change—actively participating in peace-building, conflict resolution, and post-conflict reconstruction. This resilience highlights the need to recognize and harness women’s potential for positive transformation in their communities.

Migration and its intersection and climate change also alters traditional gender roles and expectations, as families adapt to new environments; it presents opportunities for economic independence and education, empowering them to challenge restrictive gender norms. Still Migrant women often encounter exploitation, discrimination, and limited access to resources, underscoring the urgent need to address these barriers.

Corruption emerges as another formidable barrier to WASH and gender equity. It restricts women’s access to essential services and undermines their participation in leadership and decision-making processes, as demonstrated in weaponisation of water. U.N. Women has called for urgent action to protect Sudanese women and girls, emphasizing the need for accountability in addressing high levels of sexual violence and exploitation. “We cannot let Sudan become a forgotten crisis,” asserts U.N. Women’s Addou, highlighting the critical necessity for action in conflict-affected regions.

On my blog on Diversity in Water sector leadership I emphasise the concerning underrepresentation of women. A World Bank report highlights that less than 18% of the workforce in water utilities are women and that two-thirds of sanitation leaders are white according to a FLUSH LLC publication that I co-authored. This systemic inequity reflects deeper societal structures, suggesting that without diverse leadership, the water sector risks stagnation and failure in meeting SDG6 targets.

EMPOWERING PROGRESS: THE UN WWDR 2026 REPORT ELEVATES GENDER AND WATER DISCOURSE

Featured photo: March 2024, Women in Figuig, Eastern Morocco marching during the biweekly protests against water privatisation. Source AP News.

Blog by Euphresia Luseka, co-lead of the RWSN Leave No-one Behind theme.

As the waves of time crash upon the shore of progress, a mighty force is rising. These waves carry the strength of female leaders, revolutionising the Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector. To mark another milestone in the pursuit of a sustainable future, the upcoming United Nations World Water Development Report (UN WWDR 2026), will shine a spotlight on a critical yet oft-overlooked aspect of the global water crisis: the inextricable link between gender and water, illuminating a path towards a more sustainable and equitable future. UNWWDR 2026 is not merely an echo of problems, but an inspiring melody of change, empowerment, and sustainable future.

It is not just about women being disproportionately affected by lack of safe WASH access and representation in its management, but it is also about recognising the power of women as managers and catalysts for change in the WASH sector. From the pioneers in Indonesia like Retno Marsudi, UN 1st Special Envoy on Water, the indigenous Mexican women water stewards using ancient techniques passing them down to generations to preserve water in the drought-prone Oaxaca region to the relentless Figuig women of Morocco who marched in protest for several months to amplify water rights voices against water privatization and the ‘humming bird’ Nobel laureate Wangari Maathai from my country Kenya, on water catchment protection efforts, all serve as a powerful reminder that one person can create waves of change.

Water and Economic Poverty: How the Global Water Crisis Disproportionately Affects Women

The global water crisis is a crisis of inequalities disproportionately affecting women.

As we celebrate these and more trailblazing women in water leaders, the world inches closer to the 2030 deadline for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with women still left behind. The United Nations’ Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking Water (GLAAS) 2019 report reveals that a staggering 78% of countries have incorporated specific policies or strategies to promote gender equality in water and sanitation. On the other hand, the International Decade for Action (2018-2028) calls to address gender disparities in WASH access.

Alongside the progress, we also confront persistent gaps. Gaps that threaten to undermine our hard-won achievements, forming a path that recognizes the interconnected nature of WASH-related challenges and the need for inclusive solutions.

Terms like sex and gender may seem straightforward but their nuances hold profound implications for how we perceive and address WASH and gender issues. UNICEF defines Sex as the biological and physical differences between women and men while Gender as socially constructed differences in attributes and opportunities associated with being a woman, man, girl, or boy and to the social interactions and relations between women and men. Woman refers to biological females according to UNOHCR. In my view this affirms the gap in the context of WASH statistics where WASH data is often disaggregated by sex, but rarely disaggregated by gender.

Imagine a world where the simple act of accessing safe WASH does not dictate one’s ability to attend school, earn an income, or live a life free from danger. A world where our mothers, sisters, and daughters are not disproportionately burdened with the responsibility of fetching water, but are empowered managers and change agents in WASH initiatives. For more than two billion people around the globe, particularly women and girls, this is a distant reality. The latest stark metrics reveal a concerning reality: despite progress, millions of women and girls worldwide still lack access to safe WASH services, hindering their empowerment, health, and economic opportunities. This world, although still a distant reality, is one we must strive for, beginning with a deep understanding of the water-gender nexus.

Women are 2.5 times more likely to be responsible for water collection, yet they hold only 17% of the paid jobs in the water sector as confirmed by a Women for Water Partnerships Report. UN Women adds another layer of concern revealing that in 2022 a quarter of women globally lacked access to safely managed drinking water, and two-fifths lacked access to secure sanitation.

The gendered impact of inadequate WASH access is not just a reflection of biological differences, but a manifestation of socially constructed disparities. It serves as a stark reminder that water is not just a women’s issue – it’s a human issue and Graph 1 below illustrates these realities.

Graph 1 Proportion of households in which women, men, girls and boys are primarily responsible for water collection, by country, selected surveys where at least 10% of households collect water, 2012–2022 (%) Source UNICEF and WHO, 2023

UN Water’s dictum concurs and aptly captures that “Water is a human right, not a privilege,” this blog series embodies a bold commitment to upholding the rights of all.

The upcoming UN WWDR for 2026, aims to bridge this chasm by placing gender equity at the heart of WASH management and sustainability discussions. It stands as a pivotal blueprint for understanding the critical nexus between water and gender, presenting an urgent call to action for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders dedicated to fostering an inclusive, equitable, and water-secure world. By weaving together, a rich narrative of data, case studies, and expert insights, the report shall transcend mere enumeration of challenges to celebrate the resilience and ingenuity of women who are at the forefront of change within the WASH sector. It shall compellingly argue that embedding gender equality and social inclusion into water policy and practice is not just a moral imperative but a pragmatic necessity for achieving all SDGs especially SDG 5 and 6. Statistical evidence revealing the extensive failures of undervaluing women’s expertise in WASH management will be juxtaposed with success stories of women-led interventions that have illuminated pathways towards peace, prosperity, and sustainability. As the report critically examines the barriers that women and girls face in accessing safe WASH, it shall highlight the detrimental impacts of gender disparities in decision-making roles, pushing the narrative beyond mere awareness to active transformation. With a focus on fostering gender-responsive approaches in the WASH sector, the UN WWDR 2026 shall serve not only as a repository of insightful analysis but as a clarion call for disruptive change, intended to inspire dialogue and galvanize global commitment towards a future where equitable access to safe WASH is a universal reality.

Weaving threads of knowledge and trust across the world: Part 2 (Listening to Latin America)

by Sean Furey, Director, RWSN Secretariat

Nearly 30 years ago I began my first steps into a career in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Guatemala. In the morning mist, there was the dull clank of the school bell. It was an old bombshell that had been dropped on the village at some point during the thirty-year civil war. On that day it was guiding children to lessons. The clothes of the people, particularly the women, were amazing. Incredibly colourful and ornately woven, and each is distinctive to that community.

Today, my job is a different type of weaving, but no less colourful. In my previous post, I described how we, as RWSN and SuSanA, have been working with the Multilateral Development Banks, bilateral aid agencies, NGOs and researchers to weave a new narrative for rural WASH – one of learning from each other to achieve universal and lasting access.

But success doesn’t come from top-down actions only, there also needs to be a meeting with bottom-up energy, experience and initiative. Thanks to the support from SDC and IDB, through the SIRWASH project, we have had the opportunity to connect and listen to what regional practitioners are interested in and find ways to collaborate.

On 24 October, our partner, Lourdes Valenzuela from Aguatuya/SuSanA Latinoamérica co-hosted an online meeting with fellow WASH networks: “Conversatorio virtual: Escuchando las voces del sector de agua y saneamiento rural en Latinoamérica” (Online Conversation: Listening to the Voices of Rural Water and Sanitation Leaders in Latin America)

This 80-minute session, co-hosted with COLSAR, connected experts from diverse backgrounds to identify current sector demands and innovative approaches for improving rural water and sanitation management.

Themes and Objectives

The session, moderated by Marcelo Encalada from LatinWASH, sought to:

Identify essential knowledge areas and skills for strengthening rural water and sanitation services.
Explore digital tools and resources that could improve access to critical knowledge.
Examine the role of digital platforms such as SuSanA and LatinWASH in promoting sustainable solutions.

Panelist Contributions and Key Takeaways

Highlights from the RWSN Mentoring Programme – Gloria Musopole

This is a guest blog by Gloria Musopole, who participated as a mentee in the 2024 RWSN Mentoring Programme.

Participating in the RWSN Women in WASH Mentorship Program has been a great experience, offering many opportunities for both personal and professional development. The program provides a platform to connect with seasoned experts in the water sector, learn from their experiences, and gain valuable insights into navigating the challenges and opportunities in the industry. It also creates a space for building networks with fellow participants (both mentors and mentees), encouraging a supportive environment for learning, growth, and collaboration.

When I first joined the program I wasn’t sure what to expect. Looking back, I realise how much I have grown in my leadership abilities and technical skills. I have learned to take on challenges with confidence and approach tasks with a sense of purpose.

One of the highlights during this program was the opportunity to improve my skills in designing solar powered water supply systems, a field that holds a lot of potential for sustainable solutions in water access. through resources like the Global Water Partnership (GWP) course, I was able to improve my technical knowledge and now I feel more prepared to contribute to innovative projects in this area.

I have also learned the importance of strategic planning and preparation, particularly when it comes to advancing education and career opportunities. Success in competitive spaces, like school and scholarship applications, requires a well thought out plan. This insight is invaluable as I look to further my education and career within the water sector.

The program has also helped me to connect with a network of professionals from different countries, allowing for the exchange of ideas and solutions to common challenges in water sustainability. These connections are not only inspiring but are also a rich resource of knowledge and support for future collaborations.

I would like to extend my appreciation to RWSN and Women in WASH for organising such a life changing and career advancing program. Their dedication to empowering women in the WASH sector is truly inspiring, and I am thankful for the opportunity to be part of this initiative. I look forward to giving back and sharing my experiences with other emerging young professionals. I encourage anyone interested in the WASH sector to seek mentorship opportunities and connect with like-minded individuals.

Special thanks to my mentor, Elon Sooknanan, who generously shared his time and expertise in this journey. Through our sessions, I’ve gained the confidence to face challenges and opportunities head-on with belief and purpose.

Mentor’s Thoughts – Elon Ryan Sooknanan

“In March 2024, I had the privileged opportunity to mentor Gloria for six months through the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) mentorship program. Gloria’s experience was not only rich, resourced, and rewarding but truly a transformative one. She has always been persistent, consistent, and passionate about the issues of water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) in her community and by extension her country. Our initial conversations revealed a deep, unwavering commitment to making a difference, despite the multiple challenges she faced. As her mentor, I guided, supported, motivated, and inspired her. I shared my knowledge and experiences, and I helped her navigate the pathways of her professional aspirations. Mentoring Gloria has not only enriched her professional journey but has also deepened her understanding of networking and partnership and the critical importance of the 5Cs- culture, communicating, coordinating, collaborating and commitment in the field of WaSH. I look forward to seeing Gloria’s future successes and am grateful for the opportunity to have been part of her transformative journey of learning and growth” – Elon Ryan Sooknanan.

To join RWSN and be informed about the next round of the mentoring programme, please sign up here.

“Financial Innovations for Rural Water Supply in Low-Resource Settings” Innovation 7: Blended Public/Private Finance.

Image Credit: Report World Bank, 2014. ©Albert Gonzalez Farran/UNAMID

This blog post is part of a series that summarizes the REAL-Water report, “Financial Innovations for Rural Water Supply in Low-Resource Settings,” which was developed by The Aquaya Institute and REAL-Water consortium members with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The report specifically focuses on identifying innovative financing mechanisms to tackle the significant challenge of providing safe and sustainable water supply in low-resource rural communities. These communities are characterized by smaller populations, dispersed settlements, and economic disadvantages, which create obstacles for cost recovery and hinder the realization of economies of scale.

Financial innovations have emerged as viable solutions to improve access to water supply services in low-resource settings. The REAL-Water report identifies seven financing or funding concepts that have the potential to address water supply challenges in rural communities:

Village Savings for Water
Digital Financial Services
Water Quality Assurance Funds
Performance-Based Funding
Development Impact Bonds
Standardized Life-Cycle Costing
Blending Public/Private Finance

Understanding Blended Public/Private Finance.

Water supply development in low- and middle-income countries has traditionally relied on public or aid funding, rather than commercial financing. “Blended” finance refers to leveraging public funds (e.g., concessional loans or grants from national governments or development banks) to mobilize additional capital from private banks or investment groups (OECD 2019b).

Combining development finance with private investment can assume different structures to reduce risk, employing a range of instruments (e.g., equity, debt, partnerships, technical assistance, grant-funded transaction design, guarantees, or insurance; Figure 1; OECD 2019a; Convergence 2023). The most common blended finance instruments across the development sector from 2018–2019 were direct investments in companies or subsidiaries, loan guarantees, “syndicated” loans, and lines of credit (OECD 2019a). Syndicated loans come from a group of collaborating financial institutions (a loan syndicate) to a single borrower, reducing the risk and buy-in amount needed for each individual group and/or ensuring sufficient specialized expertise. Alternatively, a smaller amount of pure grant funding may be used to support technical assistance or subsidies, with the goal of attracting other investors.

Figure 1. The four most common blended finance structures (adapted from Convergence 2023)

Examples

Although not all water-related “public-private partnerships” leverage public funding to attract commercial finance, these long-term collaborative arrangements among one or more government and private sector entities have been in place for decades in low- and middle-income countries, including throughout Africa, with encouraging results. Overall,

private operators have tended to be more efficient than governments at managing construction, service delivery, and asset maintenance (World Bank Group 2014). One frequently documented benefit among several Sub-Saharan African examples, where private management covers an estimated one-third of small piped water schemes, has been reduction of “non-revenue” water, or water losses for which production costs are never recovered. Among small-scale water providers in Uganda, a private sector participation model led to expanded coverage and financial performance with only modest tariff increases (World Bank Group 2014; Hirn 2013). Active connections tripled over 10 years with tariffs rising less than inflation.

In Madagascar, a host of rural community water user committees and private water operators have signed long-term concession agreements in which a private company invests in the water system to increase household access, generate more revenue, and share profits. This model has been replicated over roughly 15 years with donor support, such as USAID’s Rural Access to New Opportunities in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (RANO WASH) activity (Tetra Tech 2021).

Another long-running example of blended finance comes from Benin. Between 2007 and 2017, more than half of Benin’s rural piped water systems transitioned to private operation and maintenance contracts known as “affermages” (Comair, Delfieux, and Dakoure Sou 2021; Migan and Trémolet Consulting 2015). In these agreements, a private operator collects tariffs and then retains a percentage of an agreed-upon price per unit of water sold, turning over the remainder to the contracting authority (Janssens 2011). The initial pilot with 10 private operators successfully rehabilitated all water systems with no additional costs to the customers (World Bank Group 2018); however, subsequent scale-up experience brought a pivot to regional contracts to attract more professional operators. In 2022, a 10-year public-private partnership was formed with a consortium of French companies (Eranove, UDUMA, and Vergnet Hydro) to rehabilitate, extend, and operate rural water systems for 100% customer coverage (Marteau 2022). Public funds will ensure private connections and tariffs remain affordable.

Although some examples (e.g., Madagascar, Benin, Cambodia) have applied blended finance to rural water supply in low- and middle-income countries, it remains at a proof-of-concept stage. Blended finance is possible where rural water provision is more organized and mature and where people pay consistently, justifying lending. This is more likely to be the case in middle-income economies.

Further proof-of-concept is required to evaluate blended financing to drive rural water supply performance. It faces a dual challenge: persuading commercial lenders that water supply represents a lucrative investment opportunity and persuading water service providers to seek loans at rates higher than those routinely offered by development finance institutions.

Blended finance projects create an evidence base for effective public investment and in turn, incentivize the capture of better financial and impact data (Convergence 2019). Objective selection criteria may help “prime” service providers to continue the behaviors and actions that support blended finance (USAID 2022). Building the foundations for blended finance will require a transition period with accompanying public sector support, to allow for a paradigm shift on the part of both borrowers (who face increased pressure to manage operations efficiently) and lenders (who often do not know the market well enough to participate in investment opportunities).

While they take time, these adjustments have taken place in other sectors, most notably energy (IRC n.d.). Pories, Fonseca, and Delmon (2019) detail foundational issues ranging from governmental sector planning and tariff setting to service provider project preparation and financial market distortions. Experiences with the approach will elucidate the degree to which blended finance can work at large scales, but transformation is unlikely to occur rapidly.

Do you want to know more? Access to the complete report on financial innovations for rural water supply in low-resource settings HERE.

The information provided on this website is not official U.S. government information and does not represent the views or positions of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the U.S. Government.

References:

Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems (3/3)

If the water sector is going to attain safe water for all then it should deliberately make efforts to move from pilots and projects to systems change and to scale and move from policy development to policy implementation. Potentially innovative finance should focus on funding rural water solutions in an environment with strong institutional frameworks to attain sustainable impact. Building upon the insights of the previous blog under the same title “Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems”, this blog explores the institutional reforms driving a resilient rural water sector. Learn about the significance of Kakamega County Rural Water and Sanitation Corporation (KACRWASCO) activities and other key strategies for achieving scale and long-term sustainability in rural water service provision.

Kakamega County Government Scales Sustainable Rural Water Service Delivery Models

If the water sector is going to attain safe water for all then it should deliberately make efforts move from pilots and projects to systems change and to scale and move from policy development to policy implementation.

In spite of significant investments in Kakamega County’s Rural water supply over the past years, that brought improved access rates, still the water service levels was a big challenge in the Year 2016. Two main challenges existed: (1) Inadequate deteriorating sources and dilapidated infrastructure to meet the demand of the increasing population and (2) Weak institutional capacity to manage the facilities viably.

According to the Kakamega County Water Supply and Urban Sewerage Strategic Plan, (2015-2019) the functionality rates in the county were un-known however 61% of the residents (urban and rural) used improved water sources. Rural water coverage was at 30% according to the Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) reports. This meant that 70% of the rural population probably had access to un-improved sources attributing to the county’s slow pace in attaining Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6) then. Despite the existence of the rural water supplies, almost 59% of the functional ones did not perform as per set standards due to lack of professional management.

Some of the institutional arrangements for rural water service delivery were in place however there was need to review the existing ones, to be in tandem with the current water sector devolution dispensation. Using a systemic approach lens it was widely concurred that the technical aspects were not the main constraint to improved water service delivery access rather weak management. Therefore, Sustainable Service Delivery Models emerged as one of the most critical areas to improve in order to respond to the county’s water crisis.

Establishing an Institutional Framework for Resilient Rural Water Management

The Constitution of Kenya 2010 (CoK) Article 43 recognizes that access to safe and sufficient water is a basic human right and assigns under the 4th Schedule the responsibility for water provision and resources management to the county governments in pursuant to article 185 (2), 186 (1) and 187 (2) of the County Governments Act 2012. Further, article 174 (f) of the Constitution provides that one of the objects of devolution is to promote social and economic development and the provision of easily accessible services throughout Kenya. The Water Act 2016 affirms this alongside the National Water Policy 2021 that was being drafted then with clauses on retaining cost recovery principles and ring fencing of the water sector revenue to ensure sustainability. However, the institutional framework for managing the water services delivery in rural areas was still unclear.

Focus on SDMs was fundamental to improving rural water supply sustainability and service levels as it focuses on long-term provision of water services at scale as opposed to the existing discrete one-off community projects. Therefore, a critical determinant of devolution success in Kenya’s Water sector will be how timely the county governments develop and manage resilient systems that are responsive and accountable to public needs. However, Kakamega County still lacked the overall capacity to develop and implement effective institutional framework for SDMs.

The impetus for implementing and scaling promising alternative Service Delivery Management Models from Organisations like SNV was eminent but Scale and Speed proved necessary towards Resilient Rural Water Supplies.

To address these challenges for long term sustainability, from a Systems approach it was imperative that not only should the Service Delivery Management Models be developed but they be anchored on an institutional framework. The USAID KIWASH Project WASH Governance interventions also entailed supporting County Governments systematically improve rural water service delivery through stimulating local government support and political commitment, budget allocations and financing for WASH. Subsequently, the Project’s activities in Kakamega county ambitiously aimed at supporting its County Government establish a legal County Rural Water Service Provider.

The Approach and Process

Section 93 (1), (2) and (3) of the Water Act 2016 provides for Water Service Providers and County Governments to establish different water services delivery options. The County Executive Committee Member (CEC) in-charge of Kakamega Water Department directed adoption of Service Delivery Management options after a situational analysis report by USAID-KIWASH Project on status of targeted rural water supplies including a market research, willingness and ability to pay for water services and commercial viability. This was done concurrently with exchange visits to successful peer WSPs under various SDMs including Nakuru Rural Water and Sanitation Co. and Tachasis Water and Sanitation Company as part of lobbying and awareness creation for legislators to support the process.

Public Consultations and Handover of rural water projects:

The Water Act 2016, section 139 (1)-(6) requires a public consultation on intent to improve water services provision through SDMs. The CECM through the Kakamega County Assembly Legislators on the Water and Environment Committee held 12 public participation exercises across all the sub-counties and entered into negotiations and agreements with asset owners towards establishing a rural water services provider to manage rural service provision affirmed by Section 94 (2)(3).

The CECM with advice from director water services commissioned handing-over of targeted rural water supplies upon a situational assessment, viability analysis and agreed service delivery option. The director of water services provided a comprehensive inventory of all assets and liabilities: human resources, entire infrastructure (hardware and software) customer inventories, cash and bank balances and project history; all the assets and liabilities were evaluated at current values. Handing over tools included earlier registration documents, the deed of hand-over/surrender and Water services regulations.

Management Contracting, Licensing and Operationalisation:

The management model adopted was the Rural Water Service Provider as illustrated in Figure 2 below; the unserved area was large it was necessary to have an entity the county will ensure the right to water is met for the rural communities. USAID-KIWASH Project supported Kakamega County Department of Water to follow due process in forming the Rural WSP with institutional setup, planning and investments and monitoring and evaluation activities. This was important since Section 104 of the County Government Act provides that these plans shall be the basis for all budgeting and spending in the county. No public funds shall be appropriated without a planning framework developed by the county executive committee and approved by the county assembly. In consultation with WASREB Kakamega County Department of Water ensured that they meet all the requirements set out under section 77 (2), (3) and (4) of the Water Act 2016. The Kakamega County Rural Water and Sanitation Corporation Bill 2019 was developed and Kakamega County Rural Water Co (KACRWASCO) was registered as a rural water service provider as a public limited liability company and applied for a license including a proposed tariff from the national regulator (WASREB) to ensure compliance with requirements to keep them accountable and viable in their service provision area. Procedurally a new Management, Board of Directors and staff were acquired. Formation of County Rural WSP.

Figure 2 Illustrating SDM for Formation of County Rural WSP

Investment Planning, Financing and Coordination

Kakamega County Department of Water alongside USAID-KIWASH Project kicked off the process of development of operational policies and plans (County Water Strategies, Water Master Plans, Policies, Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks, Procurement Guidelines, Consumer Engagement Strategy and CIDP) in accordance to Water Act,2016 Section 94. Additionally, Kakamega County Government allocated targeted subsidy to enable KACRWASCO to meet operation and maintenance costs and increase coverage to rural areas. They also partnered with various Organisations including the Private sector through Acacia Mining on a tripartite agreement to serve 15,000 people and DANCO on leasing of equipment including metres and HDPE pipes and state corporations including Water Sector Trust Fund and Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) on financing water infrastructure like tanks, water kiosks and so on . Pursuant to section 94(3) of the Water Act 2016, the County Governments should develop water infrastructure which may be managed a WSPs. Subsequently the county government have invested US$3Million in both urban and rural water sector between 2016-2021.

KACRWASCO ring fences revenues to meet operational and maintenance costs and undertake service expansion against approved annual investment plans and budgets. National and County Government entities, departments, agencies coordinate in the development and provision of rural water services in the County through them. Non state entities consult and coordinate with KACRWASCO through County Government regarding development and provision of rural water services in the County.

Performance Monitoring and Reporting

KACRWASCO continues to ensure they provide accurate and verified monitoring and evaluation key performance data as set out by WASREB. The County Government sits in the BOD and inspects and monitor elements of water services delivery from the monthly status reports to undertake appropriate remedial measures to ensure effective service delivery.

Moving Forward

The activities towards the establishment of KARWASCO resulted to increased Kakamega County’s rural water coverage from 30% to 57% between 2016-2021 with over 569,600 people accessing safely managed drinking water services and an additional 271,984 accessing basic drinking water services. County investments in the WASH sector were at US$26Million during the Financial Year 2016-2022.

When governments deliver services as per the needs of the people they serve, they can increase public satisfaction and reduce costs. New thinking is needed to deliver the benefits of rural water infrastructure investments to eliminate waste given the dwindling water sector funding. Cognizant of the essential central role that rural water supply systems play towards the progressive realization of the right to water and improving livelihoods to alleviate poverty amid limited Water sector funding, it is imperative that professionalization in management of these systems is adopted at scale with speed. Kakamega’s unfunctional rural water projects successfully increased their integration into formal markets, with closer relationships to WSPs like KACWASCO, counties and institutional actors.

Rural Water Sector Funding had consistently lagged investment needs to address system issues; however, when investment was directed towards well-executed projects that improved outcomes for the network crowding in by market actors increased. Better procurement and vendor contracting were two of the primary mid-term levers that supported small capital-expenditure projects make more efficient use of capital that improved water coverage.

WASH sector coordination through the Multistakeholder Kakamega County WASH Forum supported acquisition and equitable allocation of additional investments from the private sector, recoverable grants, growth in WSP revenues and 36 percent increase in county investments in WASH sector. The forum also supported lobbying and advocacy activities on citizen Right to Water and responsibility of both levels of government in ensuring they have access to safe water. They demanded their rights during 2017 national elections campaigns pushing politicians to include access to safe water in their manifestos that support measure their performance. After attending a social accountability briefing session on attaining SDG6 in Kakamega County organised by USAID-KIWASH Project in partnership with the Kakamega County DWENR the County coined a Clarion Call Amatsi Khumukuru a word in Luhya dialect meaning Water At The Doorstep. Such strong political will supported increase finance and equitable budget allocation for the water sector

Using a citizen-centric approach to delivering government services was helpful in creating ownership of processes and consumers taking responsibility in giving service feedback, paying water bills, reporting leaks, bursts, vandalism. WASREB has begun the process of disseminating the official guidelines for provision of water services in rural and underserved areas in Kenya. This marks WASREB’s first venture into regulation of services in the rural sector, it will significantly increase the uptake of the SDMs, establishing them as the first official guidance of formalizing water services provision in rural areas.

In closing this blog series, the significance of strong political and administrative governance, transformative partnerships, and adaptive strategies shines through in building a resilient rural water sector. Prioritizing safe water access for all and fostering collaboration pave the way for a sustainable water future, fostering prosperity and inclusivity. Thank you for joining this enlightening journey.

About the author:

Euphresia Luseka is a Water Governance Specialist and Co-Lead of RWSN Leave No-One Behind Theme. She is a seasoned Expert with experience in leadership, strategy development, partnerships and management in WASH sector nationally, regionally and internationally. She has specialised in WASH Public Policy, Business Development Support Strategies and Institutional Strengthening of urban and rural WASH Institutions. Euphresia has several publications and research work in her field.

From Gaps to Growth: Capacity development in WASH sector

This is a guest blog by RWSN member Kirsten de Vette.

Capacity development plays a pivotal role in fostering sustainable progress towards ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. This article presents several striking findings stemming from several recent capacity assessments and capacity development reviews I was involved in over the past three years. Tackling these issues will have transformative impact on the water, sanitation, and hygiene and development sectors, whilst the required effort is expected to be relatively low.

Photo 1: WASHPaLS#2: Focus Group Discussion Jigawa Nigeria. Photo credit Nanpet Chuktu

Finding 1: There is misalignment on what capacity means

There are diverse definitions and interpretations of this concept, which can impede effective implementation of interventions. Some speak of institutional capacity (enabling environment and organizational capacity), others speak about individual capacity (skills, competencies, abilities), and others only address the organizational capacity (knowledge management, leadership, systems etc) itself. This has a knock-on effect on what capacity development means. For some it is simply looking at the education of new professionals (i.e. TVET, universities). Others only equate the term capacity development with training, and others may indicate it is strengthening institutions (i.e. systems, policies etc.).

Very few stakeholders interviewed incorporate all four levels of capacity (enabling environment, organizational, individual, and society)[1] in their thinking. Many even seem to neglect the broader issues affecting capacity, such as workforce development and sustainable employment.

On top of this the terms capacity – building, – development and – strengthening are now used interchangeably to describe the process of increasing capacities. In academic literature the first two are explored and do in fact mean something different. The third is used by some to overcome a certain level of tension on the terminology inherited from the history of capacity development (will be described in following blog).

To address this, we need to develop a common understanding among stakeholders in water, sanitation, and or hygiene (perhaps broaden to include all development work) on what capacity means, and what effective capacity development then entails. This will create a solid foundation for future endeavours and collaboration.

Photo 2: WASHPaLS#2: Field visit Bihar India. Photo credit: Anand Shekhar

Finding 2: Addressing the Job Shortage Dilemma

Strengthening capacity and education alone may not be sufficient if there is a lack of suitable job opportunities. While the importance and shortages of human resources have been identified (IWA, 2014; GLAAS 2012/ 2014/ 2017/ 2022; World Water Development Report, 2016; forthcoming USAID WASHPals#2), the existence or development of corresponding employment opportunities cannot be guaranteed.

The labor market, especially for rural sanitation, is largely reliant on (I)NGOs, or Development partners, who are normally in place on project basis. Where positions are present in the public sector, they are shared with other responsibilities (e.g. water, solid waste, building & constructions and or others) that are of higher priority. The positions in the informal private sector are dependent on demand (and or projects) and often do not (yet) guarantee full-time employment in the long run.

To address this, we need to address sustainable employment, and create avenues for career growth in the sectors. This can be supported by raising awareness about the need for job creation (and investment), but also by developing the proper policies, mandates and incentives that justify stakeholders to create the needed jobs.

Finding 3: Coordination and Communication gaps

There is insufficient coordination and communication among capacity development providers, development partners, and sector actors. The education sector often struggles to meet the needs of the WASH sector, while the sector itself is unable to effectively communicate its requirements. It was also highlighted by several key informant interviews in country studies that INGOs/ development partners working at country level often fail to coordinate (all of) their capacity development efforts (the forthcoming USAID WASHPaLS #2). This results in overlapping interventions in certain regions while leaving others with inadequate support.

We need to make capacity development a collaborative endeavour. By integrating capacity development (jointly defined as per finding one) and in particular workforce development into the narrative, and into the national review meetings and or Water, Sanitation and or Hygiene plans. But also, by developing a platform for stakeholders to engage in dialogues and share insights on how to develop the needed workforce and supporting structures to deliver the country’s plans. By fostering collaboration and shared responsibility, we can harness the collective expertise and resources to enhance capacity development outcomes.

Photo 3: WASHPaLS#2: Validation workshop, Accra Ghana. Photo credit Bertha Darteh

Finding 4: Persistent challenges in capacity development efforts

Beyond, the higher-level findings (1-3), there are also persistent challenges in capacity development interventions themselves. The most important ones are:

Mismatch supply and demand: This can be caused by focus on what supply has on offer rather than soliciting what the audiences need.
Time Constraints and Limited Application: Capacity development initiatives often fall short in allocating sufficient time for participants to fully engage in the learning process and apply acquired knowledge to their work. This issue is compounded when training or workshops disrupt regular duties, compelling participants to tackle additional workload.
Narrow Focus and Overemphasis on Training: Capacity development is still frequently equated solely with training. This neglects other ways of (adult) learning that have already been recognized by the education sector and (adult) learning specialists. This limited perspective also fails to address broader aspects such as organizational structures, enabling environments, and societal factors that significantly influence capacity development outcomes.
One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Many capacity development efforts suffer from a lack of consideration for the diverse target audiences involved, including politicians, managers, and technicians. Recognizing the unique interests, needs, and learner preferences of each group is pivotal in designing tailored interventions that foster meaningful impact.
Unidirectional Learning: Traditional capacity development activities often fail to harness the valuable expertise and input of participants. By disregarding the insights of practitioners and experts during the design and implementation of programs, the potential for an inclusive and collaborative learning environment is undermined.
Lack of (long-term) capacity development strategy: Many capacity development efforts lack a comprehensive strategy (also referred to as design) capturing the outcomes, outputs, objectives, audiences, learning methods approaches, actions at the four levels of capacity, and evaluation of the intervention. In addition, and relevant for our sectors with high turnover rates, is strategizing for the retention and utilization of acquired learning and knowledge through knowledge management practices.
Insufficient Knowledge of Effective Practices: A lack of information on successful but also failing capacity development practices poses a significant challenge to the advancement of this field. Collecting data on impact and application is essential to identify and share evidence-based strategies, enabling continuous improvement and enhanced effectiveness.

Every capacity development intervention needs to check these points and address them accordingly.

Guiding Principles for Effective Capacity Development:

Building upon the identified four challenges there is a need for overarching guiding principles for effective capacity development.

Time and Application: Allow sufficient time for learning and provide opportunities for participants to apply their knowledge in their work. Consider local governance, mandates, and roles to minimize disruptions and extra workload.
Holistic Approach: Expand the scope of capacity development to address multiple levels of capacity, including individual, organizational, enabling environment, and society. Incorporate diverse learning methods, such as peer-to-peer interactions, virtual tours, mentoring, communities of practice, and working groups.
Tailored Solutions: Recognize the unique interests, needs, and approaches of different target audiences. Develop customized capacity development activities that align with specific requirements.
Engage Specialists: Involve practitioners and experts in the design and implementation of capacity development programs. Their expertise will ensure a comprehensive design that considers different audiences, learning methods, and impact measurement.
Inclusive Learning Environment: Value the input and expertise of participants to create an inclusive and collaborative learning environment.
Evidence-based Approach: Emphasize the importance of measuring impact and collecting effective capacity development practices. This data-driven approach enables continuous improvement and knowledge sharing.
Learning Mindset: Foster a culture of sharing experiences, success stories, failures and lessons learned to encourage ongoing learning and adaptation

Photo 4: WASHPaLS#2: Focus Group Discussions, Bihar India. Photo credit Anand Shekhar

By embracing these guiding principles, stakeholders involved in capacity development can address common errors and enhance the effectiveness of interventions in the water, sanitation, and hygiene sectors. Collaboration, coordination, and a shared vision are paramount in creating sustainable solutions and achieving meaningful impact. Let us, as water professionals and international development professionals, strive for innovative and context-specific approaches to capacity development that foster lasting change.

Do you have additional thoughts, ideas, or guiding principles to add? Reach out to me

Sources:

link to WASHPaLS 2: https://www.globalwaters.org/resources/assets/washpals-2-factsheet

link to one of Wateraid projects I worked on (the others are internal to WaterAid)

https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/capacity-needs-assessment-for-regulators-in-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-how-to-guide

IWA. 2014. An Avoidable Crisis: WASH Human Resource Capacity Gaps in 15 Countries. [online] Available at: <https://iwa-network.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/1422745887-an-avoidable-crisis-wash-gaps.pdf>

UN-Water GLAAS. 2022. GLAAS 2021/2022 Survey Data. https://glaas.who.int/glaas/un-water-global-analysis-and-assessment-of-sanitation-and-drinking-water-(glaas)-2022-report

UN-Water GLAAS. 2014. Investing in water and sanitation https://www.unwater.org/publications/un-water-glaas-2014-investing-water-and-sanitation

UN-Water GLAAS. 2012. The challenge of extending and sustaining services https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/glaas_report_2012_eng.pdf

Lincklaen Arriëns, W. and Wehn de Montalvo, U., 2013. Exploring water leadership. Water Policy, 15(S2), pp.15-41.

UN World Water Development report. 2016. Water and Jobs. https://www.unwater.org/publications/un-world-water-development-report-2016

UNDP, 2008. Capacity Assessment Methodology User’s Guide. [online] Available at: [Accessed 23 February 2021]

About the author: Kirsten de Vette is independent consultant and facilitator working in water, sanitation, and hygiene (related) sectors for over 13.5 years. She is a sociologist with business background who connects people, facilitates knowledge and expertise exchange, facilitates partnerships, collaboration and or change processes and facilitates capacity assessment/ development. Her expertise is in capacity development, stakeholder engagement & facilitation of change processes and learning.

She wrote this blog to share recurring findings across her recent projects in the hope that it may support action in the future. The type of projects this blog is based on is 1) coordinating (or facilitated) the undertaking of capacity assessments at organizational, national and global level and 2) reviewing capacity development efforts (2020-2023). Over 300 grey and white paper reports were reviewed across these projects, 150 people directly interviewed, and 6 country capacity assessments coordinated (with 350 people). The author wants to thank WaterAid and Tetra Tech under USAID WASHPaLS #2 for these assignments and their openness for the findings to be re-used. To take these learnings forward, she will be approaching key actors in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector to engage on these capacity development principles, and will write follow-up blogs. Stay tuned on her website and on linkedin

Strengthening accountability for water

This blog is based on the Accountability for Water action and research programme funded by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and managed by the Partnership For African Social and Governance Research (PASGR), supported by Water Witness International, KEWASNET and Shahidi Wa Maji. The full webinar summary is available here.

On 15th December 2022, a global webinar was held to discuss the critical importance of accountability for water. During the webinar, a partnership of organizations led by PASGR and Water Witness presented the findings of their Accountability for Water research program, which aimed to identify specific actions to strengthen accountability in different contexts. The programme partners involved in the research include KEWASNET, Shahidi Wa Maji, WaterAid, Water Integrity Network, End Water Poverty, IRC, and World Bank. Dr Pauline Ngimwa and Dr Muthio Nzau of PASGR introduced the webinar.

Dr Tim Brewer of Water Witness gave an overview of the research programme which started with the global review of evidence carried out in 2019-2020. According to this review, 80% of the research papers on accountability found that interventions contributed to improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services and water resource management (WRM). Common lessons emerged with clear recommendations for action by governments, civil society, donors and others. While a key lesson is that accountability is context specific, an analytical framework based on the “5 Rs of accountability” can be used to identify specific challenges and opportunities within this framework – the ability to review, explain, and report performance against rules, responsibilities, and obligations, and to react constructively to improve performance through sanctions, incentives, or corrective measures.

The review identified a series of knowledge gaps and questions, including gender, donors, government responsiveness, measurement, and civic space. Based on this analysis, 14 Professional Research Fellows (PRF) working in the water sector in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Liberia, and Zimbabwe from a range of government, civil society and academic institutions investigated accountability issues in their own contexts. The full list of research topics and researchers is at the bottom of this blog.

The following key takeaways for governments, civil society organizations (CSOs), and donors were drawn from a compilation of recommendations from the research projects .Presenters included Dr Firehiwot Sintayehu (Addis Ababa University); Eunice Kivuva (CESPAD); Chitimbwa Chifunda (WaterAid Zambia), The full list of research topics and researchers at the end of this blog demonstrates the depth and breadth of evidence underlying these recommendations .

Three key takeaways for governments

Laws, policies and accountability mechanisms are essential to support accountability. However, lack of clarity and consistency between sectors and levels, a lack of knowledge and capacity about the laws and mechanisms, and weak enforcement often undermine these. Therefore, the key recommendations are to:
- Harmonise, strengthen, and execute laws and policies for water resources and WASH at national and subnational levels,
- Strengthen accountability systems and relationships: mechanisms, standards, regulation, monitoring, stakeholder engagement and enforcement including for the private sector,
- Build capacity on accountability, develop an accountable outlook and de-politicise accountability systems.
Clear roles and responsibilities and better coordination: Accountability mechanisms are often let down by poor coordination, unclear or conflicting roles and responsibilities and widespread lack of enforcement. Key actions required are to:
- Clarify institutional roles and responsibilities between actors for WASH and WRM – eliminate conflicts in functions,
- Separate implementation and regulatory institutions,
- Strengthen horizontal and vertical institutional and sector coordination across water users through enforceable accountability systems and mechanisms.
Informed engagement with citizens and users: All the researchers found that effective engagement with citizens, citizen groups and water users is essential for accountability but wanting. To address this governments need to:
- Introduce or strengthen accountability mechanisms such as public hearings and citizen oversight panels,
- Provide Information, education, and mobilisation for communities ensure access for marginalised groups,
- Support civil society to vertically integrate social accountability initiatives into decision making at different levels,
- Support coordination amongst actors to increase the capacity of rural women and marginalised communities to participate in problem analyses and decision-making processes.

Three key takeaways for civil society,

Activate and institutionalise effective citizen oversight mechanisms. As well as the government actions to strengthen engagement with citizens and water users Civil society organisations need to support this, they should:
- Advocate for more legally institutionalised avenues of citizen oversight,
- Ensure that citizens’ monitoring and advocacy initiatives are vertically and strategically integrated in decision making at all levels,
- Carry out budget tracking throughout the whole cycle from planning to expenditure.
Build capacity, empowerment and organise communities. A very common cause of weak accountability is the low levels of knowledge and capacity of water users about their rights, the laws and responsibilities around water provision and resource management, and how they can use accountability mechanisms. Civil society organisations need to:
- Build capacity on accountability mechanisms and support their use,
- Strengthen grassroots user groups and associations to participate in decision making,
- Support civil society and water users, especially women, to move up the Participation ladder from token participation to active participation, decision making, and control.
Build on what works, like budget tracking, evidence-based advocacy, litigation. There is growing knowledge about successful strategies for strengthening accountability. This research has helped to strengthen a community of practice on accountability and identify examples that others can learn from. Key lessons for civil society are to:
- Strike a balance between constructive and critical approaches to advocacy,
- Bring strong evidence for advocacy,
- Raise awareness of WASH and WRM issues amongst all stakeholders including citizens, government and development partners.

Four key takeaways for donors and private sector

Support governments and CSOs to strengthen accountability frameworks, monitoring and enforcement. Donors can provide financial and political support for the actions for governments and civil society mentioned above. They need to:
- Support governments on WASH and WRM accountability actions as above,
- Support CSO actions as above,
- Support good governance and democratic space for citizens’ voice. Citizens’ engagement is critical to enhancing accountability,
- Invest in women’s participation and reaching marginalised people,
- Strengthen political will for accountability. Donors can influence government priorities,
- Invest seriously in sustainability.
Water investments need to go beyond projects. They need to:
- Go beyond procedural & financial accountability. For example strengthen basins planning to ensure responsible industrial water use,
- Support budget tracking through the cycle – budget tracking is an effective tool to improve budget performance,
- Invest in appropriate technology to support accountable and responsive services, For example digital monitoring of services and water treatment technology to prevent pollution of water resources.
Enhance due diligence. Researchers found examples of very weak accountability in economic uses of water by industrial and agricultural actors. Donors and private investors can help strengthen accountability by requiring:
- Stronger due diligence of companies in relation to water use,
- mandatory reporting on water,
- promoting and enforcing the Polluter pays principle
Be accountable! Donors are major investors in the water sector but often do not fulfil their commitments. For example in Zambia the WASH sector is 80% funded by Donors but only 29% of that was tracked through the budget.
- Accountability Mechanisms are needed to enable Governments and CSO to hold Donors accountable for their commitments.

Discussion and next steps

During the webinar, Sareen Malik from KEWASNET, emphasised the importance of legislation to strengthen accountability mechanisms. NGOs can play an important role to advocate for this and bring stakeholders together in Joint Sector reviews as a critical mechanism for accountability, monitoring and reporting.

Martin Atela of PASGR reflected on the role of politics in undermining accountability and suggested that political interference can be mitigated by greater clarity on roles and boundaries of ministerial responsibilities. He also emphasized the need to find ways to work with political elites so they see the value in change

Next steps involve joining the community of practice on accountability for water, to continue learning from experience and to advocate for commitments to strengthen accountability.

Research partners are organising an event at the UN Conference on Water 2023: “Where is the accountability” on Tuesday 21^st March, driving a greater emphasis on governance and accountability. This needs to be front and centre of all discussion.

The Research programme is managed by the Partnership for African Social and Governance Research (PASGR) and Water Witness International with financial support from the Hewlett Foundation.

More information about the research is on the website including findings from the global review of evidence, recorded presentations from webinars at World Water Week 2022 in Stockholm, presentations from country specific webinars, and summary briefings of all the research topics. www.accountabilityforwater.org

List of Research topics, Professional Research Fellows and host institutions

Ethiopia

Government Dynamics of Accountability in Ethiopia, Mulugeta Gashaw, Water Witness Ethiopia
Political Economy Analysis of water governance, Asnake Kefale
Risks and opportunities for growth in Ethiopia’s textile and apparel industries, Esayas Samuel
Wastewater management in upstream catchment of ARB, Yosef Abebe, Addis Ababa University and Ministry of Water and Energy
Accountability of the One WASH National Programme of Ethiopia, Michael Negash, PSI
Towards a sustainable management of faecal sludge: the case of Addis Ababa, Tamene Hailu
Alwero Dam governance, Firehiwot Sentayu, Addis Ababa University

Kenya

Government Dynamics of Accountability in Kenya, Dr Tiberius Barasa
Enhancing coordination for accountability and sustainability in water resources management; a case of Kerio sub-catchment in Baringo rift valley basin. Eunice Kivuva (CESPAD)
Kakamega County Water and Sanitation Company, Kenya. Mary Simiyu, Kakamega Water Service Provider
Rural Women and water decisions in Kwale and Kilifi Counties, Felix Brian, KWAHO
Strengthening accountability in solid waste management through incentives and penalties in Naivasha, Kenya, Naomi Korir, Sanivation

Tanzania

Government Dynamics of Accountability in Tanzania, Dr Opportuna Kweka
Assessment of Gender Power Relations and Accountability in Community Based Water Supply Operators in Selected Water Basins of Tanzania, Pitio Ndyeshumba, Institute of Lands
Regulatory and Legal Accountability for Water Pollution in Tanzania: The Case of Msimbazi River Basin in Dar es Salaam City, Mwajuma Salum, University of Dar Es Salaam
Opportunities and challenges of accountability claiming in Tanzania’s water sector, Dr Parestico Pastory, University of Dodoma

Zambia

What makes budget advocacy an effective accountability tool, Bubala Muyove, NGO WASH Forum and Chitimbwa Chifunda, WaterAid Zambia

Zimbabwe

Assessing the effectiveness and impact of statutory accountability mechanisms to improve water service provision and catchment management, Mable Murambiwa, Combined Harare Residents Association, Zimbabwe

Liberia

Accountability Challenges in The Liberia Water-Supply Sector: LWSC in Robertsport and Kakata, Timothy Kpeh, United Youth for Peace, Liberia

About the author: This blog is authored by Louisa Gosling, freelance specialist in accountability, rights and inclusion in WASH, previously working with WaterAid and as chair of RWSN.

A Mentoring journey, by Fadzai T. Munodawafa and Kerstin Danert

For International Women’s Day, we would like to highlight two participants from the RWSN Mentoring programme for young professionals and women, Fadzai T. Munodawafa-Bhurabhura (from Zimbabwe) and Dr Kerstin Danert (from Switzerland). You can find out more about their experience of mentoring through RWSN below. RWSN plans on launching a new edition of the mentoring programme soon, and encourages women of all ages in the water sector to sign up. To find out more, sign up to become a RWSN member today.

Mentorship is a reciprocal learning relationship in which a mentor and mentee work collaboratively toward the achievement of mutually-defined goals that will develop a mentee’s skills, abilities, knowledge, and/or thinking.

Fadzai’s words:

I am Fadzai T. Munodawafa, a WASH professional with an international Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) in Zimbabwe. I support teams who implement WASH in the rural communities in Zimbabwe. In addition, I am responsible for managing the drilling unit of the organisation. With such responsibilities as a young professional, I sought to increase my understanding of rural and urban water supply and sanitation as well as groundwater monitoring, which both have a significant bearing on improving access to water for under-privileged communities.

A message of invitation for young professionals in the water sector to join the mentorship programme under the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) was shared on the Zimbabwe WASH Cluster platform. I thought this was an opportunity to learn from senior professionals and firm up my career. Following acceptance within the mentorship programme in 2020, I was linked with Dr Kerstin Danert a water sector professional researcher and facilitator.

Kerstin’s words:

I am Kerstin Danert, a rural water supply professional who has been active in RWSN since 2004, when I was still living and working in Uganda. I work as a consultant, with a range of types of work including research, training, facilitation and knowledge-brokering. I currently live in Switzerland.

Fadzai’s words:

My mentorship experience was a flexible one where I would ask questions or a raise discussion point and Kerstin would have a topic for discussion for our scheduled meetings. During our 9-month mentorship relationship, Kerstin and I discussed broadly on topics such as groundwater management, remote sensing and sustainable community-based management of water points key areas that have helped me in my career in the water sector. Kerstin’s experience in sub-Saharan Africa and remote areas made our connection easy as she could relate to my experiences and questions.

Kerstin’s words:

Our mentoring relationship commenced just as I was branching out to start my own company, which unfortunately coincided with the start of the Covid pandemic. It was not an easy time (as we all know), and I was worried as to whether my company would even survive. It very soon became apparent that this would not be a one-way mentorship by any means. Fadzai not only helped me to make contact with field realities (which I was very much missing), but also gave me a lot of support and encouragement regarding my new venture.

Fadzai’s words:

As a young professional, I was not confident speaking in public forums, a weakness my mentor helped me to work on. Now I can confidently speak in professional forums following her encouragement. Our engagement also looked into working on my resume and boost it to showcase the experience and skills I have. In addition, she connected me with experienced drillers and water specialists in Zimbabwe.

Kerstin’s words

Although I have now worked in the water sector for over 25 years always as a consultant, I still remain concerned work may not come in going forwards. Further, I think that I had began to take my years of experience for granted. The exchanges with Fadzai helped me to fully appreciate that I am actually not at the start of my working life, but (hopefully) in the middle of it with a lot under my belt already!

Both of us

Since the mentorship programme under RWSN, we have kept in touch resulting in our participation in the UNHS Climate and Gender podcast on Global Partnership: Gender, Progression and Climate-Orientated Careers (The UNHS Podcast and Spotify) in 2021. The following year, our mentorship led us to work on a report and video documenting the impact stories from participants of online courses on professional drilling by the RWSN

Fadzai’s words:

As a result of my mentorship experience, I can more effectively allocate my time for various activities, connect and confidently engage with other professionals in the water sector as well as have knowledge on key aspects of documentation. I highly recommend other young professionals to join the mentorship program that will build them up in their career within the water sector. Many thanks to the RWSN for this amazing and life changing experience.

Kerstin’s words:

This mentorship brought me closer to the field again. I learned so much from the conversations with Fadzai – and drew insights from her into all of my ongoing assignments, whatever the topic in fact. She always had such insightful contributions to make. And I argue that I was the mentee just as much as Fadzai was. So I encourage others to take the time to get involved in this programme. It has been so rewarding and I look forward to finally meeting Fadzai one day! We have been talking regularly now for three years. A big thanks to RWSN for this chance.

To find out more information about the RWSN mentoring programme, please see here.