De nombreux pays cherchent à développer les services d’eau en milieu rural et à améliorer les niveaux de service pour les habitants des petites villes et des zones rurales en investissant dans des réseaux d’eau décentralisés et de petite taille. L’Afrique de l’Ouest francophone a une longue histoire de délégation des services d’eau potable (généralement des petits réseaux) dans les petites villes et les zones rurales à des opérateurs professionnels, qui peuvent être des associations publiques ou des opérateurs privés.
Le Secrétariat du RWSN, en partenariat avec le programme REACH, a passé l’année passée à enquêter sur l’expérience de la délégation des services d’eau et les moteurs des récentes réformes de la politique de l’eau potable en milieu rural dans plusieurs pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest francophone. Nous avons réalisé une étude documentaire détaillée et parlé à 25 experts du secteur de l’eau en milieu rural dans la région pour comprendre pourquoi et comment les réformes des politiques d’eau potable en milieu rural se sont produites, et quelles leçons peuvent être tirées des diverses expériences de délégation des services d’eau potables en milieu rural à des opérateurs professionnels.
Many countries are looking to expand rural water services and improve service levels for people living in small towns and rural areas by investing in small, decentralised piped water services. Francophone West Africa has a long history of delegating water services (usually piped) in small towns and rural areas to professional operators, both public and private.
The RWSN Secretariat in partnership with the REACH programme spent the last year investigating the experience of the delegation of rural water services and the drivers behind recent rural water policy reforms in several countries of francophone West Africa. We did a detailed desk review, and spoke to 25 experts in rural water sector in the region to understand why and how rural water policy reform happened, and what lessons can be drawn from their experiences in delegating rural water services to professional operators.
This blog is part of a four-part series covering the presentations given at the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.
Our blog series takes a focused look at the presentations and discussions that revolved around “Addressing Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion in Zambia – Stop the Rot!”, which was co-convened by UNICEF and WaterAid, together with Ask for Water GmbH and the RWSN, hosted by Skat Foundation.
Cover photo: Red, iron-rich water being pumped. Photo: WaterAid Uganda
Second session:
The role of galvanized pipes in the corrosion and failure of hand pumps
Empowered Communities Helping Others (ECHO) has been implementing a safe water project since 2020. This is a Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) project, whose main intervention is borehole rehabilitation which is implemented in rural parts of Zambia’s Western and Central Provinces, in collaboration with the Local Authority. In practice, the need to rehabilitate a borehole arises when a functioning borehole presents usage problems such as non-production of water, worn out parts such as pipes, rods, handles, chains, cylinders, water chambers, pedestal, head assembly, bearings, etc.
Since 2020, ECHO has rehabilitated a total of about 850 boreholes in Central and Western Zambia, benefiting a total of about 255,000 people.
It was found that rehabilitating a borehole can be more economical than constructing a new one. It is simpler and faster and can be an appropriate solution in an emergency because it doesn’t require things like mobilizing a drilling rig. However, if the rehabilitated borehole is to be used for a long time, it is important to estimate its life expectancy.
The rehabilitation option chosen depends on the conditions of the existing borehole, the causes of the damage, the technical and logistic options, and the existing alternatives such as the construction of a new water point.
According to the severity of the borehole problems, the work requirements may vary from a simple repair at the surface to re-equipment.
For the project, all GI pipes are replaced with new PVC ones. This is done in order to prevent and reduce iron contamination (as a result of corrosion) which from the past four years we have observed is a contributing factor to borehole failure and abandonment
The main observed sources of iron are:
▪ From natural sources in the aquifer
▪ From pump components such as steel casings and galvanized pipes.
▪ In other instances, a combination of both has been observed to be possible. ▪ Within 3 to 6 months of installing hand pumps with galvanized material, pipes and rods have been found to be heavily corroded.
▪ When corrosion is the main source of iron, iron concentrations reduce drastically when water is pumped out and fresh recharge is allowed. If iron concentrations remain high throughout during continued pumping, the case has been that it is likely the iron is coming from the aquifer.
Experiences on hand pump corrosion
Hand pumps with GI pipes, sometimes only a year or two old have corroded, and people have returned to unprotected water sources. Water with pH below 6 has been observed to have corroded pipes. High iron concentrations in handpumps have been a usual occurrence this has been observed through regular water quality testing and evaluating the change in iron concentration over the period of our operations. Stainless steel pipes and rods had corrosion rates lower than galvanized iron (GI) pipes and rods.
Experiences on hand pump corrosion
The brown or reddish color is observed in the morning when the pumps had not been used during the night
However, groundwater has been observed to hold significant concentrations of iron but appears clear and colorless. When this water is pumped out after being exposed to the atmosphere, the color changes to red/brown.
Figure 3: Sampled on Friday 2nd June 2023 in Central Province.
General complaints recorded from communities:
Within weeks and months of installation, communities would begin to complain about water quality. These complaints range from metallic taste, odor, and the appearance of water. Also, the communities would report discoloration of water and cloths and highly turbid water.
All these result in people abandoning the water point and going back to unprotected alternative water sources.
Positive observations
The use of uPVC pipes and stainless-steel adapters has so far shown positive results in reducing iron contamination. After switching from galvanized pipes to UPVC, the communities have observed reduced to no brown or reddish color in the water. uPVC pipes last long, so you won’t have to worry about replacing them anytime soon. Since uPVC is non-porous, uPVC pipes help by preventing any contamination from occurring. uPVC is resistant to corrosion as it is not susceptible to chemical and electrochemical reactions, so there are better option in controlling iron contamination. The use of uPVC pipes and stainless-steel adapters has so far shown positive results in reducing iron contamination
Figure 4: Riser pipe removal and water quality testing for an installation that was less than six months old by ECHO.
What we are advocating for:
▪ Stakeholders should address the handpumps with corrosion problems as a priority in order to guarantee the water quality we supply to the people.
▪ Testing boreholes that present iron contamination to determine whether the source of iron is from the aquifer or from corrosion. This will provide the best options for the right material to equip the water point with
▪ Competent borehole drilling and rehabilitation supervision should be ensured so that all standards and specifications are adhered to.
▪ Regular water quality analysis is undertaken, and critical parameters are tested to address problems such as corrosion and other related problems that shorten the life span of a hand pump
You are invited to access the presentations HERE, along with the session’s concept and report. If you would like to dive deeper into the enriching exploration of water challenges and solutions through the Stop the Rot initiative, visit this page.
About the author:
Annie Kalusa – Kapambwe presenting at at ZAWAFE 2023
Annie Kalusa is an accomplished development practitioner and administrator. Currently working for a local Zambian NGO Empowered Communities Helping Others (ECHO) in Zambia, focusing on improving the wellbeing of Vulnerable Rural Communities. Her areas of focus are climate resilient Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). She is currently developing her thesis on Rural Agriculture Practices and Mechanisms for Water Resource Management.
This blog is part of a four-part blog series highlighting the presentations delivered during the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.
Our blog series takes a focused look at the presentations and discussions that revolved around “Addressing Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion in Zambia – Stop the Rot!”, which was co-convened by UNICEF and WaterAid, together with Ask for Water GmbH and the RWSN, hosted by Skat Foundation.
Third session:
The journey towards reducing the effects of rapid corrosion in Kalumbila District.
Kalumbila District is a district in the North-Western Province of Zambia. It has two major mines namely Lumwana and Kalumbila Mines.
With a population of over 170,000, the district has about 300 water points (boreholes and protected wells equipped with handpumps).
Rapid handpump corrosion has been a problem since the district was created in 2015. One of the interventions that the district has undertaken has been iron removal filters (to remove iron from pumped water), although these have not been sustainable.
Figure 1: Location of Kalimbula District
In every program of drilling of boreholes about 40% of boreholes were abandoned within one year after handover due to rapid corrosion.
We started looking for a solution to this problem. We found that iron filters were used but were not sustainable.
Figure 2: Handpump evaluation
One of the interventions that the district has undertaken has been iron removal filters (to remove iron from pumped water), although these have not been sustainable. In Kalumbila District it was found, that in every borehole programme, about 40% of the handpumps installed were abandoned due to high iron content, with some boreholes being abandoned as early as three months after construction and commissioning.
Projects
In 2017 UNICEF supported Kalumbila district in the drilling of 23 boreholes and rehabilitation of 15 water points.
In 2018 JICA also supported Kalumbila district with rehabilitation of 77 water points using uPVC pipes with stainless steel adapters. It is from these projects that we learnt a lot of important lessons and made recommendations to the D-WASHE committee. No water point was abandoned after one year of handover Kalumbila district decided to suspend the use of galvanised iron (GI) pipes and recommended the use of stainless steel and uPVC pipes for Indian Mark II and Afridev hand pumps.
Lessons learnt
It is from these two projects that we learnt a lot of lessons, and we told ourselves never to keep quiet. From these two projects, we observed that no water point was abandoned after one year of handover. We saw a solution – why continue to use GI pipes when there was a solution. So we made recommendations to the D-WASHE committee. After this, Kalumbila district decided to suspend the use of galvanised iron (GI) pipes and recommended the use of stainless steel and uPVC pipes for India Mark II and Afridev hand pumps. We have discovered that handpumps with stainless steel riser pipes do not require frequent repair and maintenance whereas sometimes the GI pipes would require replacement every six months. For the past four years, those handpumps remain working.
Our challenges include a lack of funding for the rehabilitation of boreholes affected by rapid corrosion. Further, some stakeholders have not supported the districts fully.
Recommendations
Stakeholders at the national level take an interest in order to address this issue of rapid corrosion.
The use of materials that are environmentally friendly without change of properties when they come into contact with aggressive water (i.e. materials such as stainless steel and uPVC).
There is capacity building of all Area Pump Menders (APMs) in Afridev hand pumps.
All hand pumps that have galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes are to be rehabilitated.
You are invited to access the presentations HERE, along with the session’s concept and report. If you would like to dive deeper into the enriching exploration of water challenges and solutions through the Stop the Rot initiative, visit this page.
About the author:
Daniel Shimanzapresenting at ZAWAFE 2023
Daniel Shimanza is a Zambian Citizen who has worked in the water sector for more than 6 years. He worked on many water supply projects in Kalumbila district, Zambia in collaboration with GRZ, NGOs such as UNICEF, and World Vision. He has a passion for the improvement of access to clean water supply for people living in rural areas. He’s championing a campaign to reduce the effects of rapid corrosion in Kalumbila district by using alternative materials such as stainless steel pipes, PVC pipes, Iron Filters, and more. He holds a Diploma in Water Engineering from NRDC and currently pursuing a Bachelor of Civil Engineering from the Copperbelt University.
This blog is part of a four-part series covering the presentations given at the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.
Our blog series takes a focused look at the presentations and discussions that revolved around “Addressing Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion in Zambia – Stop the Rot!”, which was co-convened by UNICEF and WaterAid, together with Ask for Water GmbH and the RWSN, hosted by Skat Foundation.
SIWI’s World Water Week (WWW) in Stockholm is one of the greatest global gatherings addressing worldwide water challenges and fostering collective action.
WWW 2023 carries particular significance as it builds upon the commitments and outcomes established during the UN 2023 Water Conference. Themed “Seeds of Change – Innovative Solutions for a Water-Wise World”, the event brought together participants from over 150 countries, inviting them to rethink how we manage water, what innovations, ideas, and governance systems exist to tackle water-related challenges. The advantage of having free online participation not only heightened inclusivity but allowed greater global participation and discussions on pivotal water issues.
The Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN)’s Secretariat, members, and supporters participated in the 2023 WWW edition, underscoring their dedication to finding sustainable solutions to the global water crisis. By facilitating meaningful discussions and co-convening three sessions, RWSN had the opportunity to be part of the broader efforts of addressing water-related challenges in rural areas and beyond.
Cover Photo: Satoshi Ishii, Director, Water and Urban Development Sector Office, ADB exchanged views on water initiatives and programs with Sean Furey and Aline Saraiva Okello, PhD from the RWSN Secretariat (Source: ADB, LinkedIn)
Driving rural water innovation: concept to scale-up. Sunday, 20 Aug, Online and Onsite
Photo credits: A. Saraiva Okello, RWSN
This REAL-Water session brought together innovators aiming to speed up rural water development. Panelists showcased innovations in technology, finance, and management at various stages. Participants explored how these innovations could impact their work and considered the past and future of rural water innovation.
Convenors: Aquaya, Evidence Action, iDE, Imagine H2O, REAL-Water program of USAID, Rural Water Supply Network, Skat Foundation, The Nature Conservancy, UDUMA, Virridy, Water Mission, Water.org
Women for the Future of Water. Building on the Momentum of the UN 2023 Water Conference. Tuesday, 22 August 2023, Online
This session addressed how the workforce of the water and sanitation sector demonstrates a gender imbalance. Different organisations tackle the challenge of gender-imbalance from researching to empowering professional water and sanitation women through networking, mentoring and support at local, national or international levels to address the commitments related to gender in the water sector, made at the UN 2023 Water Conference. Convenors: African Water and SanitationAssociation (AfWASA); International Water Association (IWA); Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA); Women for Water Partnership (WfWP); Women in Water & Sanitation Network (WWSN)
Photo: Women’s Mingle. Credits: A. Saraiva Okello / Ellen Greggio
SIRWASH breakfast at the World Water Week 2023.
The SIRWASH programme, led by the Swiss Agency of Development Cooperation (SDC) and the Inter-American Bank (IDB), hosted a side event at World Water Week and brought together prominent leaders and shared advances in monitoring, policy and partnerships.
Some of the topics covered included:
Telemetry for monitoring WASH services in rural areas, by Mr. Edgard Coronel, Monitoring Specialist, National Rural Sanitation Program (PNSR), Peru.
National Rural Sanitation Program: challenges for implementation, by Flavio Marcos Gomes Júnior, National Secretary of Sanitation, Ministry of Cities, Brazil.
Advances and challenges in terms of access to water and sanitation in rural areas of Chile, by Carlos Estévez Valencia, Coordinator of the Water Cabinet, Ministry of Public Works, Chile.
Sergio Campos, Head of the IDB’s Water and Sanitation Division, spoke about the progress being made to encourage and promote exchange between countries in the Southern Hemisphere on water, sanitation and hygiene in rural areas, and the importance of working together with different Multilateral Development Banks -such as the African and Asian Development Banks- to achieve a unified global call to action towards the achievement of SDG 6.
Photo: SIRWASH session during World Water Week 2023. Credit: A. Saraiva Okello
Launch of Africa’s Voice on Water (AVOW)
The African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) launched the first edition of “Africa’s Voice on Water” a new quarterly bi-lingual publication that brings news and opinion from policy, programmes and research. Sean Furey attended the launch on behalf of RWSN, having co-authored an article on the RWSN “Stop the Rot” campaign and brokered an article on Water Quality Assurance from the REAL-Water programme.
Photo: AMCOW social media account.
Looking ahead
RWSN’s efforts to improve water security in rural areas continue. As a leading global network of professionals in rural water supply, RWSN keeps working diligently towards achieving universal access to sustainable, safe and affordable water for all.
This blog is part of a four-part series covering the presentations given at the 11th Zambia Water Forum and Exhibition. The event, themed “Accelerating Water Security and Sanitation Investments in Zambia: Towards Agenda 2023 through the Zambia Water Investment Programme”, lasted three days.
Our blog series takes a focused look at the presentations and discussions that revolved around “Addressing Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion in Zambia – Stop the Rot!”, which was co-convened by UNICEF and WaterAid, together with Ask for Water GmbH and the RWSN, hosted by Skat Foundation.
Cover Photo: Removal of corroding riser pipe in Hoima District, Uganda in 2012 (source: Larry Bentley). In 2018 the Government of Uganda issued a directive to prevent further use of galvanised iron riser pipes throughout the country.
First session:
History of the Rapid Hand Pump Corrosion Problems in Zambia and Potential Next Steps
In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), an estimated 200 million people rely on a handpump for their main source of drinking water. They most likely use about 700,000 handpumps (Danert, 2022). Although the popularity of other technologies is growing, handpumps are likely to remain important in the region for decades to come, particularly in areas that are remote or with low population density. Unfortunately, many handpump services perform poorly or fail prematurely due to technical or installation defects with the borehole or the pump, as well as weaknesses with operation and maintenance or financial constraints.
In Zambia, it has been estimated that handpumps are the main source of drinking water for 19% of the urban and 32% of the rural population. It is worth to highlight that all metallic components that are submerged in water, or move in and out of water will eventually corrode, and so corrosion must be considered as part of the long-term maintenance of water wells with handpumps (or motorised pumps).
About rapid handpump corrosion
Rapid handpump corrosion occurs when aggressive groundwater reacts with galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes and rods of a handpump, and the India Mark II in particular. The materials corrode, with the pumped water becoming bitter in taste, with an unpleasant smell and a rusty colour. This not only renders the water unfit for drinking from a user perspective but also considerably reduces the pump lifespan. In Zambia, the main cause of rapid handpump corrosion is contact between groundwater with a pH of less than 6.5 and GI pipes and rods. However, salinity is also a problem in some parts of the country and can result in rapid corrosion too.
The use of alternative materials to GI, particularly stainless steel (SS) riser pipes and rods and uPVC rider pipes fitted with stainless steel connectors, can prevent rapid handpump corrosion. While rapid handpump corrosion was documented in West Africa in the late 1980’s ((Langenegger, 1989), and actions to prevent it have been taken in some places, the phenomenon still occurs in over 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Zambia, with an estimated 22,000 handpumps in use, serving 32% of the population with their main drinking water supply, is among these countries.
Figure 1: Soil reaction map (pH) map of Zambia, 2014. (Shitumbanuma et all, 2021)
Figure 2: Zambia’s Agro-Ecological Zones (1987) and the 10 Provinces (Makondo & Thomas, 2020)
Figure 3: History of efforts in Zambia in relation to rapid handpump corrosion – Overview
In Zambia, while the geographical extent of aggressive water is not fully understood by water sector professionals, it has been documented and explained with respect to soils. A Soil Survey by the Mount Makulu Research Station from 1990 presents the situation clearly, with extreme soil acidity in the north, and soil acidity in the central parts of the country. Further, in Zambia the traditional Chitemene – ‘slash and burn’ – method of cultivation in the high rainfall region has been used since time immemorial to neutralise low pH in soils in order to cultivate crops. Leaching from these highly acidic soils affects the pH of the groundwater.
The problem of rapid corrosion in handpumps in Zambia has been known for more than 30 years (Pitcher, 2001) and is well documented, including in the following:
The Central Province Rural Water Supply Project (CPRWSP) (1985 – 1996) – which installed 564 handpumps with stainless steel riser pipes rather than using GI to prevent rapid corrosion.
The North-Western Province Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2004 – 2009) – over 350 handpumps were installed with stainless steel riser pipes, also in response to the same issue.
In Luapula Province under the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)-supported Groundwater Development Project (2007 – 2010), some Afridev handpumps with uPVC riser pipes were installed. The project rehabilitated existing, corroded handpumps which the community had previously abandoned. Replacing the GI pipes with uPVC stopped the iron problem, indicating that in these boreholes, using iron pipes had been the cause of corrosion. Iron removal plants were also installed on some boreholes.
However, while solutions were implemented at scale in the aforementioned projects in Central and North-Western Provinces, as well as the study in Luapula, the use of GI riser pipes and rods still continued in subsequent projects in the same areas.
Some stepbacks
There was a change in the ministry responsible for drilling works. The period 1985 – 1996 saw borehole drilling under the Department of Water Affairs, while the Department of Infrastructure and Support Services under the Ministry of Local Government and Housing took on this role after it had been created in 1995.
National Guidelines for Sustainable Operation and Maintenance of Handpumps in Rural Areas (MLGH, 2007) includes neither aggressive water as a criterion for handpump selection nor the use of stainless steel riser pipes, and so the use of GI pipes in aggressive water as the cause of the ensuing rapid corrosion was in effect further supported.
Initiatives undertaken in the last 10 years
Under the SOMAP 2 project (2012 – 2013), the JICA-supported programme carried out pipe replacement of GI at 20 sites in four provinces (Luapula, Copperbelt, Central and the North Western) whereby GI pipes were removed, the boreholes flushed and then installed with uPVC pipes. The replaced handpumps performed well without the water turning rusty, and the communities continued to draw water from them, whereas previously they had been abandoned.
UNICEF also carried out pipe replacement in Mansa and Milenge districts of Luapula Province. In the study, India Mark II handpumps GI pipes at 45 sites were replaced with uPVC riser pipes. After the pipe replacement of GI riser pipes, the community used the handpumps that had previously been abandoned, with unsafe water sources being used instead. The pipe replacement study was successful, with the water users returning to previously abandoned boreholes which had clear, rust-free water.
There is some evidence of other projects and organisations starting to use either stainless steel riser pipes, or uPVC riser pipes with stainless steel connectors in their projects, but documentation is limited. While stainless steel riser pipes have been used effectively, there are also some outstanding technical issues – particularly in relation to the removal of narrower diameter riser pipes, which require suitable tools that are not in the standard India Mark II toolkit. Further, the use of uPVC pipes has also been found to be problematic, as they need to be cut on removal and cannot easily be re-threaded. However, at least one NGO in Zambia has been using an alternative, comprising uPVC with stainless steel couplers which is available on the Zambian market. A further complication is that some parts of Zambia appear to exhibit naturally occurring iron. Tests are available to determine whether iron is naturally occurring or a result of corrosion, but there is no comprehensive map to indicate areas at risk of high levels of geogenic iron.
While stainless steel riser pipes have been used effectively, there are also some outstanding technical issues – particularly in relation to the removal of narrower diameter riser pipes, which require suitable tools that are not in the standard India Mark II toolkit. Further, the use of uPVC pipes has also been found to be problematic, as they need to be cut on removal and cannot easily be re-threaded. However, at least one NGO in Zambia has been using an alternative, comprising uPVC with stainless steel couplers which is available on the Zambian market. A further complication is that some parts of Zambia appear to exhibit naturally occurring iron. Tests are available to determine whether iron is naturally occurring or a result of corrosion, but there is no comprehensive map to indicate areas at risk of high levels of geogenic iron. Despite all of the efforts to date, and notwithstanding the widespread nature of rapid handpump corrosion of GI riser pipes and pump rods, the problem still persists in 2023.
Potential Next Steps for GRZ / International Donor Community / Universities
Revise the National Water Policy to include aggressive groundwater in community boreholes
Restrict Types of Handpumps to Certain Regions.
Enact a Law and a Statutory Instrument on Aggressive Groundwater in Community Boreholes.
Incentivise the private sector for provision of corrosion-resistant pipes and rods
Regulation of Quality of Handpumps by Zambia Bureau of Standards.
Standardise Handpumps Used in Zambia.
Further studies and replacement of galvanised iron riser pipes.
Further Research Studies on the phenomenon of naturally occurring iron in ground and surface water and
Research Studies on Saline Water in Western Province
You are invited to access the presentations HERE, along with the session’s concept and the study report: Nkhosi. J and Danert, K. (2023). ‘Stop the Rot: History of the Rapid Handpump Corrosion Problem in Zambia and Potential Next Steps. Action research on handpump component quality and corrosion in sub-Saharan Africa’. Ask for Water GmbH, Skat Foundation and RWSN, St Gallen, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.27489.28006.
If you would like to dive deeper into the enriching exploration of water challenges and solutions through the Stop the Rot initiative, visit this page.
About the author:
Javan Nkhosi presenting at ZAWAFE 2023
Javan Nkhosi is a Zambian water professional. He has worked in the rural water sub-sector for more than 25 years on many water supply projects funded by the government, NGOs and donor agencies as a private consultant across Zambia. He has a passion for improving water supply to the unreached areas of rural Zambia. He holds a Diploma in Agricultural Engineering from NRDC, Lusaka, Advanced Diploma in Water Engineering from the Copperbelt University and an MSc in Project Management from the University of Lusaka. He is a Registered Engineer with Engineering Institute of Zambia (EIZ) and also a member of the Association of Consulting Engineers of Zambia (ACEZ) , an affiliate of the International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC).
References:
Danert, K. (2022) ‘Stop the Rot Report I: Handpump reliance, functionality and technical failure. Action research on handpump component quality and corrosion in sub-Saharan Africa’. Ask for Water GmbH, Skat Foundation and RWSN, St Gallen, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.19733.81121
This blog post is part of a series that summarizes the REAL-Water report, “Financial Innovations for Rural Water Supply in Low-Resource Settings,” which was developed by The Aquaya Institute and REAL-Water consortium members with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The report specifically focuses on identifying innovative financing mechanisms to tackle the significant challenge of providing safe and sustainable water supply in low-resource rural communities. These communities are characterized by smaller populations, dispersed settlements, and economic disadvantages, which create obstacles for cost recovery and hinder the realization of economies of scale.
Financial innovations have emerged as viable solutions to improve access to water supply services in low-resource settings. The REAL-Water report identifies seven financing or funding concepts that have the potential to address water supply challenges in rural communities:
Village Savings for Water
Digital Financial Services
Water Quality Assurance Funds
Performance-Based Funding
Development Impact Bonds
Standardized Life-Cycle Costing
Blending Public/Private Finance
Understanding Blended Public/Private Finance.
Water supply development in low- and middle-income countries has traditionally relied on public or aid funding, rather than commercial financing. “Blended” finance refers to leveraging public funds (e.g., concessional loans or grants from national governments or development banks) to mobilize additional capital from private banks or investment groups (OECD 2019b).
Combining development finance with private investment can assume different structures to reduce risk, employing a range of instruments (e.g., equity, debt, partnerships, technical assistance, grant-funded transaction design, guarantees, or insurance; Figure 1; OECD 2019a; Convergence 2023). The most common blended finance instruments across the development sector from 2018–2019 were direct investments in companies or subsidiaries, loan guarantees, “syndicated” loans, and lines of credit (OECD 2019a). Syndicated loans come from a group of collaborating financial institutions (a loan syndicate) to a single borrower, reducing the risk and buy-in amount needed for each individual group and/or ensuring sufficient specialized expertise. Alternatively, a smaller amount of pure grant funding may be used to support technical assistance or subsidies, with the goal of attracting other investors.
Figure 1. The four most common blended finance structures (adapted from Convergence 2023)
Examples
Although not all water-related “public-private partnerships” leverage public funding to attract commercial finance, these long-term collaborative arrangements among one or more government and private sector entities have been in place for decades in low- and middle-income countries, including throughout Africa, with encouraging results. Overall,
private operators have tended to be more efficient than governments at managing construction, service delivery, and asset maintenance (World Bank Group 2014). One frequently documented benefit among several Sub-Saharan African examples, where private management covers an estimated one-third of small piped water schemes, has been reduction of “non-revenue” water, or water losses for which production costs are never recovered. Among small-scale water providers in Uganda, a private sector participation model led to expanded coverage and financial performance with only modest tariff increases (World Bank Group 2014;Hirn 2013). Active connections tripled over 10 years with tariffs rising less than inflation.
In Madagascar, a host of rural community water user committees and private water operators have signed long-term concession agreements in which a private company invests in the water system to increase household access, generate more revenue, and share profits. This model has been replicated over roughly 15 years with donor support, such as USAID’s Rural Access to New Opportunities in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (RANO WASH) activity (Tetra Tech 2021).
Another long-running example of blended finance comes from Benin. Between 2007 and 2017, more than half of Benin’s rural piped water systems transitioned to private operation and maintenance contracts known as “affermages” (Comair, Delfieux, and Dakoure Sou 2021;Migan and Trémolet Consulting 2015). In these agreements, a private operator collects tariffs and then retains a percentage of an agreed-upon price per unit of water sold, turning over the remainder to the contracting authority (Janssens 2011). The initial pilot with 10 private operators successfully rehabilitated all water systems with no additional costs to the customers (World Bank Group 2018); however, subsequent scale-up experience brought a pivot to regional contracts to attract more professional operators. In 2022, a 10-year public-private partnership was formed with a consortium of French companies (Eranove, UDUMA, and Vergnet Hydro) to rehabilitate, extend, and operate rural water systems for 100% customer coverage (Marteau 2022). Public funds will ensure private connections and tariffs remain affordable.
Although some examples (e.g., Madagascar, Benin, Cambodia) have applied blended finance to rural water supply in low- and middle-income countries, it remains at a proof-of-concept stage. Blended finance is possible where rural water provision is more organized and mature and where people pay consistently, justifying lending. This is more likely to be the case in middle-income economies.
Further proof-of-concept is required to evaluate blended financing to drive rural water supply performance. It faces a dual challenge: persuading commercial lenders that water supply represents a lucrative investment opportunity and persuading water service providers to seek loans at rates higher than those routinely offered by development finance institutions.
Blended finance projects create an evidence base for effective public investment and in turn, incentivize the capture of better financial and impact data (Convergence 2019). Objective selection criteria may help “prime” service providers to continue the behaviors and actions that support blended finance (USAID 2022). Building the foundations for blended finance will require a transition period with accompanying public sector support, to allow for a paradigm shift on the part of both borrowers (who face increased pressure to manage operations efficiently) and lenders (who often do not know the market well enough to participate in investment opportunities).
While they take time, these adjustments have taken place in other sectors, most notably energy (IRC n.d.). Pories, Fonseca, and Delmon (2019) detail foundational issues ranging from governmental sector planning and tariff setting to service provider project preparation and financial market distortions. Experiences with the approach will elucidate the degree to which blended finance can work at large scales, but transformation is unlikely to occur rapidly.
Do you want to know more? Access to the complete report on financial innovations for rural water supply in low-resource settings HERE.
The information provided on this website is not official U.S. government information and does not represent the views or positions of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the U.S. Government.
This blog post is part of a series that summarizes the REAL-Water report, “Financial Innovations for Rural Water Supply in Low-Resource Settings,” which was developed by The Aquaya Institute and REAL-Water consortium members with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The report specifically focuses on identifying innovative financing mechanisms to tackle the significant challenge of providing safe and sustainable water supply in low-resource rural communities. These communities are characterized by smaller populations, dispersed settlements, and economic disadvantages, which create obstacles for cost recovery and hinder the realization of economies of scale.
Financial innovations have emerged as viable solutions to improve access to water supply services in low-resource settings. The REAL-Water report identifies seven financing or funding concepts that have the potential to address water supply challenges in rural communities:
Village Savings for Water
Digital Financial Services
Water Quality Assurance Funds
Performance-Based Funding
Development Impact Bonds
Standardized Life-Cycle Costing
Blending Public/Private Finance
Understanding standardized life-cycle costing
One tool of asset management, life-cycle costing, has been used for many years to account for all costs of a product, system, or program from its inception to disposal (Sherif and Kolarik 1981). “Life-cycle” costs represent the aggregate financial expense of ensuring delivery of adequate, equitable, and sustainable water services to a specified population (Fonseca et al. 2010). Beyond calculations, the approach seeks to mainstream life-cycle considerations into institutional processes. It covers all expenditures, such as hardware, software, operation, maintenance, source water protection, training and planning support, replacement costs, and shifts needed to meet water demand. To accurately assess financing needs, service providers should categorize different types of expenses and quantify the total requirement, as well as when costs and revenues accrue.
In low-income rural areas, standardizing approaches to life-cycle costing could help to clarify how much and what type of funding might be needed to sustain water supply operations. The WASHCost project from 2008–2013 (Fonseca et al. 2011; 2010) and the State of the Safe Water Enterprises Market study (Dalberg 2017) found that carefully quantifying and ensuring funding for full life-cycle costs (particularly capital maintenance expenditures) is critical to maintaining sustainability. A common framework and step-by-step approach were proposed to quantify and categorize life-cycle costs (Table 1).
Examples
IRC developed and piloted a rural water life-cycle costing approach under the WASHCost project (Veenkant and Fonseca 2019; Table 1), which aimed to capture the full costs of providing adequate services (rather than just the initial cost of infrastructure). The approach can be used to assess water services in rural communities as well as refugee and emergency settlements. Cost categories include construction, implementation, maintenance, and replacement.
The Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) Directory applies the same life-cycle costing approach to profile a number of rural water service providers, such as 4Ward Development (formerly called Access Development) in Ghana; AguaClara in Honduras, Nicaragua, and India; and the BESIK Programme in Timor-Leste (Deal, Furey, and Naughton 2021). It encourages further discussion on financial analyses that would inform decision-making for public services investment.
An application of the life-cycle costing approach to 14 privately run water schemes in Vietnam highlighted its ability to discern long-term profitability of rural piped water systems, particularly with respect to asset depreciation and capital maintenance (Grant et al. 2020). The analysis pointed to options for improving the schemes’ viability, such as subsidy and tariff adjustments. Another study in rural Andhra Pradesh, India, used life-cycle cost analysis to illustrate how gaps in upfront public investments in 43 villages led to service slippage due to poor operation and maintenance as well as water quality and source sustainability (Reddy et al. 2012). Infrastructure costs were overrepresented at project outset, and actual unit costs were found to be substantially higher than the official norms. In two districts of Amhara, Ethiopia, a 10-year study found that emergency water trucking and treatment costs greatly exceeded pre-planned costs of providing piped water, highlighting the importance of considering climate resilience (Godfrey and Hailemichael 2017).
Marketability
Life-cycle costing is widely used in high-income countries, where staff capacity and data tracking capabilities support completing this exercise on a regular basis. While life-cycle costing studies have been done in low- and middle-income countries, structural gaps in the water supply market prevent the practice from proliferating. More incentives are needed for implementers to track data and align on financial and operational metrics. Monitoring and evaluation web platforms like the Rural Water and Sanitation Information System (SIASAR Global)—now used in 14 countries—could be leveraged to track geocoded asset inventory and financial health (Smets and Serrano 2019).
Do you want to know more? Access to the complete report on financial innovations for rural water supply in low-resource settings HERE.
The information provided on this website is not official U.S. government information and does not represent the views or positions of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the U.S. Government.
If the water sector is going to attain safe water for all then it should deliberately make efforts to move from pilots and projects to systems change and to scale and move from policy development to policy implementation. Potentially innovative finance should focus on funding rural water solutions in an environment with strong institutional frameworks to attain sustainable impact. Building upon the insights of the previous blog under the same title “Service Delivery Management Models, Good Political and Water Governance for Strong Rural Water Systems”, this blog explores the institutional reforms driving a resilient rural water sector. Learn about the significance of Kakamega County Rural Water and Sanitation Corporation (KACRWASCO) activities and other key strategies for achieving scale and long-term sustainability in rural water service provision.
Kakamega County Government Scales Sustainable Rural Water Service Delivery Models
If the water sector is going to attain safe water for all then it should deliberately make efforts move from pilots and projects to systems change and to scale and move from policy development to policy implementation.
In spite of significant investments in Kakamega County’s Rural water supply over the past years, that brought improved access rates, still the water service levels was a big challenge in the Year 2016. Two main challenges existed: (1) Inadequate deteriorating sources and dilapidated infrastructure to meet the demand of the increasing population and (2) Weak institutional capacity to manage the facilities viably.
According to the Kakamega County Water Supply and Urban Sewerage Strategic Plan, (2015-2019) the functionality rates in the county were un-known however 61% of the residents (urban and rural) used improved water sources. Rural water coverage was at 30% according to the Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) reports. This meant that 70% of the rural population probably had access to un-improved sources attributing to the county’s slow pace in attaining Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6) then. Despite the existence of the rural water supplies, almost 59% of the functional ones did not perform as per set standards due to lack of professional management.
Some of the institutional arrangements for rural water service delivery were in place however there was need to review the existing ones, to be in tandem with the current water sector devolution dispensation. Using a systemic approach lens it was widely concurred that the technical aspects were not the main constraint to improved water service delivery access rather weak management. Therefore, Sustainable Service Delivery Models emerged as one of the most critical areas to improve in order to respond to the county’s water crisis.
Establishing an Institutional Framework for Resilient Rural Water Management
The Constitution of Kenya 2010 (CoK) Article 43 recognizes that access to safe and sufficient water is a basic human right and assigns under the 4th Schedule the responsibility for water provision and resources management to the county governments in pursuant to article 185 (2), 186 (1) and 187 (2) of the County Governments Act 2012. Further, article 174 (f) of the Constitution provides that one of the objects of devolution is to promote social and economic development and the provision of easily accessible services throughout Kenya. The Water Act 2016 affirms this alongside the National Water Policy 2021 that was being drafted then with clauses on retaining cost recovery principles and ring fencing of the water sector revenue to ensure sustainability. However, the institutional framework for managing the water services delivery in rural areas was still unclear.
Focus on SDMs was fundamental to improving rural water supply sustainability and service levels as it focuses on long-term provision of water services at scale as opposed to the existing discrete one-off community projects. Therefore, a critical determinant of devolution success in Kenya’s Water sector will be how timely the county governments develop and manage resilient systems that are responsive and accountable to public needs. However, Kakamega County still lacked the overall capacity to develop and implement effective institutional framework for SDMs.
The impetus for implementing and scaling promising alternative Service Delivery Management Models from Organisations like SNV was eminent but Scale and Speed proved necessary towards Resilient Rural Water Supplies.
To address these challenges for long term sustainability, from a Systems approach it was imperative that not only should the Service Delivery Management Models be developed but they be anchored on an institutional framework. The USAID KIWASH Project WASH Governance interventions also entailed supporting County Governments systematically improve rural water service delivery through stimulating local government support and political commitment, budget allocations and financing for WASH. Subsequently, the Project’s activities in Kakamega county ambitiously aimed at supporting its County Government establish a legal County Rural Water Service Provider.
The Approach and Process
Section 93 (1), (2) and (3) of the Water Act 2016 provides for Water Service Providers and County Governments to establish different water services delivery options. The County Executive Committee Member (CEC) in-charge of Kakamega Water Department directed adoption of Service Delivery Management options after a situational analysis report by USAID-KIWASH Project on status of targeted rural water supplies including a market research, willingness and ability to pay for water services and commercial viability. This was done concurrently with exchange visits to successful peer WSPs under various SDMs including Nakuru Rural Water and Sanitation Co. and Tachasis Water and Sanitation Company as part of lobbying and awareness creation for legislators to support the process.
Public Consultations and Handover of rural water projects:
The Water Act 2016, section 139 (1)-(6) requires a public consultation on intent to improve water services provision through SDMs. The CECM through the Kakamega County Assembly Legislators on the Water and Environment Committee held 12 public participation exercises across all the sub-counties and entered into negotiations and agreements with asset owners towards establishing a rural water services provider to manage rural service provision affirmed by Section 94 (2)(3).
The CECM with advice from director water services commissioned handing-over of targeted rural water supplies upon a situational assessment, viability analysis and agreed service delivery option. The director of water services provided a comprehensive inventory of all assets and liabilities: human resources, entire infrastructure (hardware and software) customer inventories, cash and bank balances and project history; all the assets and liabilities were evaluated at current values. Handing over tools included earlier registration documents, the deed of hand-over/surrender and Water services regulations.
Management Contracting, Licensing and Operationalisation:
The management model adopted was the Rural Water Service Provider as illustrated in Figure 2 below; the unserved area was large it was necessary to have an entity the county will ensure the right to water is met for the rural communities. USAID-KIWASH Project supported Kakamega County Department of Water to follow due process in forming the Rural WSP with institutional setup, planning and investments and monitoring and evaluation activities. This was important since Section 104 of the County Government Act provides that these plans shall be the basis for all budgeting and spending in the county. No public funds shall be appropriated without a planning framework developed by the county executive committee and approved by the county assembly. In consultation with WASREB Kakamega County Department of Water ensured that they meet all the requirements set out under section 77 (2), (3) and (4) of the Water Act 2016. The Kakamega County Rural Water and Sanitation Corporation Bill 2019 was developed and Kakamega County Rural Water Co (KACRWASCO) was registered as a rural water service provider as a public limited liability company and applied for a license including a proposed tariff from the national regulator (WASREB) to ensure compliance with requirements to keep them accountable and viable in their service provision area. Procedurally a new Management, Board of Directors and staff were acquired. Formation of County Rural WSP.
Figure 2 Illustrating SDM for Formation of County Rural WSP
Investment Planning, Financing and Coordination
Kakamega County Department of Water alongside USAID-KIWASH Project kicked off the process of development of operational policies and plans (County Water Strategies, Water Master Plans, Policies, Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks, Procurement Guidelines, Consumer Engagement Strategy and CIDP) in accordance to Water Act,2016 Section 94. Additionally, Kakamega County Government allocated targeted subsidy to enable KACRWASCO to meet operation and maintenance costs and increase coverage to rural areas. They also partnered with various Organisations including the Private sector through Acacia Mining on a tripartite agreement to serve 15,000 people and DANCO on leasing of equipment including metres and HDPE pipes and state corporations including Water Sector Trust Fund and Lake Victoria North Water Works Development Agency (LVNWWDA) on financing water infrastructure like tanks, water kiosks and so on . Pursuant to section 94(3) of the Water Act 2016, the County Governments should develop water infrastructure which may be managed a WSPs. Subsequently the county government have invested US$3Million in both urban and rural water sector between 2016-2021.
KACRWASCO ring fences revenues to meet operational and maintenance costs and undertake service expansion against approved annual investment plans and budgets. National and County Government entities, departments, agencies coordinate in the development and provision of rural water services in the County through them. Non state entities consult and coordinate with KACRWASCO through County Government regarding development and provision of rural water services in the County.
Performance Monitoring and Reporting
KACRWASCO continues to ensure they provide accurate and verified monitoring and evaluation key performance data as set out by WASREB. The County Government sits in the BOD and inspects and monitor elements of water services delivery from the monthly status reports to undertake appropriate remedial measures to ensure effective service delivery.
Moving Forward
The activities towards the establishment of KARWASCO resulted to increased Kakamega County’s rural water coverage from 30% to 57% between 2016-2021 with over 569,600 people accessing safely managed drinking water services and an additional 271,984 accessing basic drinking water services. County investments in the WASH sector were at US$26Million during the Financial Year 2016-2022.
When governments deliver services as per the needs of the people they serve, they can increase public satisfaction and reduce costs. New thinking is needed to deliver the benefits of rural water infrastructure investments to eliminate waste given the dwindling water sector funding. Cognizant of the essential central role that rural water supply systems play towards the progressive realization of the right to water and improving livelihoods to alleviate poverty amid limited Water sector funding, it is imperative that professionalization in management of these systems is adopted at scale with speed. Kakamega’s unfunctional rural water projects successfully increased their integration into formal markets, with closer relationships to WSPs like KACWASCO, counties and institutional actors.
Rural Water Sector Funding had consistently lagged investment needs to address system issues; however, when investment was directed towards well-executed projects that improved outcomes for the network crowding in by market actors increased. Better procurement and vendor contracting were two of the primary mid-term levers that supported small capital-expenditure projects make more efficient use of capital that improved water coverage.
WASH sector coordination through the Multistakeholder Kakamega County WASH Forum supported acquisition and equitable allocation of additional investments from the private sector, recoverable grants, growth in WSP revenues and 36 percent increase in county investments in WASH sector. The forum also supported lobbying and advocacy activities on citizen Right to Water and responsibility of both levels of government in ensuring they have access to safe water. They demanded their rights during 2017 national elections campaigns pushing politicians to include access to safe water in their manifestos that support measure their performance. After attending a social accountability briefing session on attaining SDG6 in Kakamega County organised by USAID-KIWASH Project in partnership with the Kakamega County DWENR the County coined a Clarion Call Amatsi Khumukurua word in Luhya dialect meaning Water At The Doorstep. Such strong political will supported increase finance and equitable budget allocation for the water sector
Using a citizen-centric approach to delivering government services was helpful in creating ownership of processes and consumers taking responsibility in giving service feedback, paying water bills, reporting leaks, bursts, vandalism. WASREB has begun the process of disseminating the official guidelines for provision of water services in rural and underserved areas in Kenya. This marks WASREB’s first venture into regulation of services in the rural sector, it will significantly increase the uptake of the SDMs, establishing them as the first official guidance of formalizing water services provision in rural areas.
In closing this blog series, the significance of strong political and administrative governance, transformative partnerships, and adaptive strategies shines through in building a resilient rural water sector. Prioritizing safe water access for all and fostering collaboration pave the way for a sustainable water future, fostering prosperity and inclusivity. Thank you for joining this enlightening journey.
About the author:
Euphresia Luseka is a Water Governance Specialist and Co-Lead of RWSN Leave No-One Behind Theme. She is a seasoned Expert with experience in leadership, strategy development, partnerships and management in WASH sector nationally, regionally and internationally. She has specialised in WASH Public Policy, Business Development Support Strategies and Institutional Strengthening of urban and rural WASH Institutions. Euphresia has several publications and research work in her field.
Rural Water Supply Network - blog 